1 Major body system examination Clinical Tips • The initial physical examination should focus on the major body systems, namely the cardiovascular, respiratory and central nervous systems, as severe abnormalities…

15 Head tilt and nystagmus The vestibular system is responsible for balance and coordinating movements of the eyes, trunk and limbs with changes in head position. Head tilt and nystagmus…

8 Acute abdomen The term acute abdomen refers to a syndrome that involves the acute onset of clinical signs secondary to an intra-abdominal disorder which typically has the potential to…

7 Abnormal urine or urination A number of different terms are in use clinically to describe signs exhibited by animals with abnormal urine or urination and the following is the…

14 Cyanosis Clinical Tip • In most animals, cyanosis indicates very severe hypoxaemia. However, it is essential to remember that animals can be markedly hypoxaemic and on the cusp of…

13 Collapse The term ‘collapse’ is not specific to any one disorder or body system abnormality. All collapsed animals are recumbent but being able to classify them more specifically is…

18 Jaundice Jaundice (icterus) is a relatively common presenting complaint or finding in dogs and cats. This syndrome is characterized by hyperbilirubinaemia and deposition of bile pigment in tissues. Clinically,…

16 Hyperthermia and pyrexia Clinical Tip • Hyperthermia and pyrexia both manifest as elevated core body temperature but they have different causes, represent different pathophysiological processes, and require a different…