46 LMN paresis and paralysis Flaccid tail INITIAL PRESENTATION Flaccid tail, low tail carriage, tail paralysis. INTRODUCTION Sacrococcygeal muscles dorsally and ventrally, and the lateral intertransversarius coccygeus muscles extend and…

27 Alteration of eyelid position and movement INTRODUCTION The palpebral fissure is the opening between the eyelids. It forms at 7–10 days in the newborn cat and dog. Opening and…

58 Loss of balance INITIAL PRESENTATION Leaning, falling, rolling, circling, ataxia, head tilt, nystagmus. INTRODUCTION Sudden onset of idiopathic peripheral vestibular disease is very common in the older dog. Vomiting…

35 Coughing INTRODUCTION Coughing is a voluntary or reflex action in which deep inspiration is followed by forced expiration against a closed glottis. This requires strong contraction of the respiratory…

73 Urinary incontinence – an introduction Urination becomes a voluntary action in the young animal. It is governed by interactions of the CNS and PNS, many of them reflex. Cerebral…

71 Retroperitoneal disease INITIAL PRESENTATION Lumbar pain, pyrexia, lethargy, anorexia and abdominal pain. INTRODUCTION The retroperitoneum is the potential space between the ventral fascia of the sublumbar muscles and the…

66 Bilateral atrophy of the masticatory muscles INTRODUCTION Atrophy of the masticatory muscles (MM) allows the skull shape to be more obvious and owners often report a ‘lump’ which is…

64 Hypocalcaemia INTRODUCTION Clinical signs of hypocalcaemia reflect calcium’s importance to the electrical stability of excitable tissue. Spasms, cramp and tetany are commonly observed. Handling and excitement typically induce or…

62 Tremor INTRODUCTION Tremor is an involuntary rhythmic oscillation of a body part. Oscillations are of large (coarse) or small (fine) amplitude. They may occur when the animal is recumbent,…

43 LMN paresis and paralysis – an introduction The motor functions of the CNS are expressed through the lower motor neuron (LMN) (Fig. 43.1), which consists of: • Cell bodies…