Feeding Management Systems


Feeding Management Systems



South American camelids (SACs) are successfully managed under a wide range of feeding systems. This chapter will discuss feeding practices for llamas and alpacas managed under either traditional extensive (e.g., low-input, pastoral-based) or intensive (e.g., high-input, forage and supplement feeding) systems. Specific feeding practices under intensive management systems for various feeding groups based on physiologic state are described.



Agroecosystems for South American Camelid Production



Population, Geographic Area of Breeding, and Farming Systems


With the exception of guanacos, whose major population is found in Argentina (more than 80%), the largest populations of llamas (96%), alpacas (99%), and vicuna (94%) are located in Peru and Bolivia. Of the world’s alpaca and vicuna population, 91% are found in Peru, and 70% of the world’s llama population is found in Bolivia.1


In Peru, the unique habitat of SACs is the mountain range, which is around 3000 meters (m) in altitude; it is located mainly in the southern highlands and supports 88.9% of llamas and 80.7% of alpacas. The region of Puno has the highest proportion of alpacas (49%) and llamas (28.6%). Over the years, the population of SACs remains unchanged and is composed of 1.08 million llamas, 3.01 million alpacas, 100,000 vicunas, and 3000 guanacos.


SACs are associated with the puna zone at altitudes between 3600 to 5000 m, with an increase in the breeding of alpacas from 4000 m and greater. In Peru, farming systems are classified according to their livestock composition: (1) farms where alpacas are handled separately from sheep and cattle; (2) farms where the alpacas and sheep are managed together; and (3) farms where alpacas, sheep, and cattle are all handled together. The first is characteristic of cooperatives, and the last two systems are more specific to communities and small and medium producers. It was observed that at altitudes above 4300 m, the species proportion on farms was 2% cattle, 30% sheep, and 61% SACs, whereas for altitudes lower than 4000 m, this proportion was 10%, 89%, and 1% for cattle, sheep, and SACs, respectively.2


The carrying capacity of the high Andean region in Peru was estimated at 30.6 million sheep units per annum. However, the current load exceeds that by more than 5 million sheep unit per year.3 Because of overgrazing at over 50% of sites located in these grasslands, grazing areas are in poor or very poor condition. Overgrazing is the result of practical difficulties of pasture management, mostly because of land tenure systems, especially in communal lands.


In Bolivia, llamas are generally associated with sheep in farming systems. Llama breeding occurs in the harshest zone of the Altiplano, where most agricultural activities are not possible. The Altiplano is characterized by an annual precipitation around 300 millimeters (mm) (11.8 inches) with tremendous interannual variation from 90 to 500 mm (3.5 to 19.7 inches). Oruro and Potosi are regions with 60% of the total llama population (1.21 million).4



Characteristics of Breeding


Bryant and colleagues evaluated the effect of technologic levels in alpaca breeding and found marked differences, especially between the high or medium levels and the low technological level (Table 11-1).5 High technologic inputs were defined by use of machinery, fertilizers, improved agronomic practices (improved seeds, irrigation), improved animal management practices (genetic selection, artificial insemination, records systems, medical care, annual shearing) and had quality buildings and equipment. Low technology level was associated with no use of these practices.



In general, and regardless of the size of the herd, all SACs are kept in one flock without distinction of age, sex, or color and do not follow a definite program of field operation (calendar). In others, with a small degree of organization, animals are classified by age and sex and a program of activities, which are more or less defined, is followed. In the latter type of farms, mating takes place between December and April, as opposed to those maintaining one flock where the mating tends to be continuous throughout the year. The low production indices of the rural communities are a reflection of the low level of technology application despite having the largest population of SACs in the country.


Shearing is practiced between the months of October and November and is held annually in some operations and every 2 years in others. Between the two types, those whose shearing is annual have a better advantage, since the shearing generates more and better fiber crops and can exercise more effective control of ectoparasites.


In some cases, a marked tendency to maintain a high number of castrated males as producers of fiber (at levels of 35 to 40%) generates a low proportion of females within the herd. This, combined with the delay in the first service of the females (2 years of age), low fertility (less than 50%) with births at 3 and 4 years of age, and high mortality of offspring (50%–60%), limits herd population growth (especially alpacas) given the lack of replacement females. This practice also makes the breeding of animals difficult. Low fertility rates are partly attributable to high embryonic mortality that exists in these species, reproductive mismanagement, and especially to the poor nutritional status of the livestock.


The health status of the herd is critical, especially for the livestock belonging to communities. The mortality rate is high because of diarrhea in calves as well as a high infestation of external parasites (mange). In some cases, the diarrhea is caused by Clostridium perfringens, types A and C, multiple causes such as viral, parasitic, and other bacterial infections may exist. With regard to scabies, the treatment given by owners is generally inadequate because of poor application of a commercial product or lack of manpower to treat the infested herd.




Nutritional Critical Periods: Availability and Nutritional Quality


SACs face serious constraints in meeting their nutritional needs from the Andean natural grassland. Limitations are associated with decreasing nutritional quality and availability of species consumed during the prolonged dry season; however, some producers in the higher areas make use of the pastures that grow in wetlands to alleviate some of the problems of quality and availability of pasture during the dry season.


The natural grasslands show slight variations in potential nutritional deficiencies during the annual cycle. Thus, in period I (November and December) energy is potentially deficient, in period III (May, June and July) protein is at risk, and in period IV (August September and October) both energy and protein are at risk (Table 11-2).



To evaluate the different production phases of raising alpacas and llamas and the seasonality, availability, and quality of forage during the year, it is possible to identify stages in which the animals’ nutritional requirements are hardly covered. These stages are weaning, which takes place between the months of September and October, and the last third of pregnancy, which occurs from September through December (Figure 11-1).



Although alpaca females are generally mature at 2 years of age, it has been determined that females of 1 year of age may exhibit sexual behaviour and ovulate, and their fertilization rates, birth rates, and body weight and calf survival rates are similar to those observed in mature females. These reproductive parameters may be observed at 1 year of age when the female SAC reaches 60% of mature weight (72.6 lb [33 kg] in alpaca, and 110 lb [50 kg] in llama).


Given the dependence of age at puberty on live animal weight, it is important to identify factors that prevent females reaching the desired weight at 1 year of age. One of these factors is the stress at weaning. Weaning, when performed, is typically between the months of September and October, months that coincide with low availability and quality of forage. Weaning age varies (6 to 9 months), depending on the month of birth. The reported weaning weight of alpacas raised on natural grasslands averages 62.7 lb (28.5 kg), whereas those reared on cultivated pasture is 96.8 lb (44 kg). As noted earlier, for these animals, it is important to have a feeding strategy that enables them to achieve the desired weight for the first year of breeding age. Some of the effective strategies are the use of cultivated pastures, protein-energy supplementation, reservation of the best grazing lands, or some combination of all these strategies.


The length of gestation in SACs is about 11.5 months. Fetal development shows exponential growth around the seventh month of gestation (210 days); during this period, a weight gain equivalent to 70% of fetal birth weight is achieved. As the breeding period is during January, February, and March (rainy season), the last third of gestation occurs mainly during the months of September, October, November, and December. The high nutritional demand for fetal growth coincides with a critical period of nutrient deficiency, adding to the nutritional deficit and causing poor fetal development, which results in low birth weight. Thus, the birth weights of those calves born in the month of January (start of the rainy season) are lower than the birth weights of those born in April (end of rainy season).


Low birth weights lower the survival rates in crias. Because of the relationship between birth weight and weaning weight, chances that crias with low birth weight will reach the appropriate weight at first service, at 1 year of age (puberty), are lower. Besides the advantages of better birth weight in offspring, it is assumed that females in better nutritional condition in the last third of pregnancy will have better reproductive performance.



Feeding Strategies


The use of cultivated pasture (ryegrass and white clover) in raising alpacas has shown benefits, largely because of increased stocking rate, decreased cria mortality, and the acceleration of maturity in young animals (tuis), mainly females.


Irrigated cultivated pastures are economically beneficial if they are used as a supplement to prairies (and not as a food base). Some considerations on how to implement supplementation practices include (1) restricting grazing of cultivated pastures, (2) cutting hay to be used during the dry season, (3) giving supplements only in the last third period of gestation, (4) using supplementation in tuis fattening during the dry season, and (5) supplementation of the female alpaca tuis to induce early sexual maturation and produce an extra calf in the productive life of the female. A 21-day process of revitalization or flushing prior to breeding in cultivated grasses (rye grass–white clover) showed higher fertility compared with those not provided such supplementation.


Alternatively, the use of introduced forage species is an improvement on the overgrazing of native grasslands. Productivity improvements have been achieved by nitrogen fertilization with the introduction of white clover and fertilization with alpaca and sheep feces. It should be noted that many of these efforts have been limited, especially in the fields of medium and small producers. The causes of low adoption might include the need for areas with good moisture and fertile soil for the production to be adequate, establishment costs, and finally, low prices for wool and meat of these animals at the producer level, which could prevent the adoption of technology.



Feeding Management in Intensive Systems


Llamas and alpacas are satisfactorily maintained on pasture, in confinement, or a combined feeding system. Pasture usage is dictated by local climatic conditions, plant varieties and seasonal availability, and grazing methods. Variations in rotational grazing methods, agronomic practices, and irrigation greatly improve pasture usage, carrying capacity (animal stocking density), and quality. Confinement or dry lot feeding systems provide dried conserved forage (hay), although ensiled forage has been fed successfully to SACs, and rely minimally on pasture. Confinement systems require decisions relative to forage type fed, forage harvesting or purchase practices, storing capacity, and feeding mechanisms (intake data in Table 11-3 can be used to estimate forage needs). Successful feeding systems may vary from 100% pasture to 100% hay and all variations in between. In contrast to the extensive management systems used in South America, various types and amounts of supplements may be added to any of these feeding systems to prevent any potential nutrient deficiencies from forage alone.



Llamas and alpacas raised outside of South America are exposed to a greater diversity of environmental conditions, ranging from extreme hot and humid environments (southern United States, Australia, southern Europe) to extremely cold winter conditions (northern United States, Canada, and northern Europe). Average winter daily temperature in northern North America falls below 5°F (–15°C) and may decline to –31°F (–35°C).6 These are environmental extremes that llamas and alpacas do not experience in their native environment. Hot and humid environments bring challenges of preventing heat stress, a significant health risk for llamas and alpacas. Cold, wet conditions also have challenges associated with effective protective shelter and increased energy intake to compensate for additional maintenance requirements.


Along with diversity of environments and feeding management schemes, the North American, European, and Australian systems have forage challenges to address. South American forages are perceived to be of lower quality compared with forage grown elsewhere; however, a review of the forage nutrient data (see Tables 10-1 to 10-4) shows a similarity in range of forage quality among forage sources. The important difference to note is availability of low-quality or high-quality forages year round. SACs must contend with nearly 9 months of low forage availability as well as declining quality. In contrast, llamas and alpacas raised elsewhere may receive high-quality or low-quality forages throughout the year, with availability only constrained by sporadic regional drought conditions. As a result, feed-related problems range from potential malnutrition to obesity, with a tendency toward greater incidence of obesity.7,8 Feeding low-quality forage at the wrong time may result in some devastating animal health problems, even deaths. Obesity is not a healthy condition in animals as in humans.


The issue here is not necessarily the differences in the nutrient contents of forages between North America and South America or the resultant complacency about feeding programs but the adequate provision of needed nutrients to maintain high productivity and the health of animals. Most managers in North America do not accept the observed low reproductive rates and high mortality rates noted in South America. Availability of quality forages year round and supplement use allow for improved reproduction, growth rate, and animal health performance. The challenge of the feeding program is to provide forages of appropriate nutrient content and availability in sufficient amounts to support the animal in various physiologic states to optimize health and performance.



Feeding Programs


Feeding animals according to their specific nutritional needs is the primary objective of any feeding program. Individual hand feeding best accomplishes this objective but is labor intensive and impractical for larger herds. Given their social behavioral hierarchy, individual animals would need to be tethered while eating to ensure that each animal gets its intended diet. Grouping animals with similar nutritional requirements is a reasonable compromise (Table 11-4).9 With animal grouping strategies, specific nutrient needs can be targeted and feed resources appropriately allocated. Group feeding programs need to account for social hierarchy and provide sufficient feeding space to allow feed access for all animals. When group feeding, especially if similar nutritional groups are combined, overfeeding possibilities by one or more individuals should be kept in mind and appropriate adjustments made.


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Mar 27, 2017 | Posted by in GENERAL | Comments Off on Feeding Management Systems

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