Claude Lacasse
Falconiformes (Falcons, Hawks, Eagles, Kites, Harriers, Buzzards, Ospreys, Caracaras, Secretary Birds, Old World and New World Vultures)
The taxonomy of the order Falconiformes has been the subject of debate but the order usually includes five families: (1) Cathartidae (New World vultures), (2) Accipitridae (hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, buzzards, and Old World vultures), (3) Falconidae (falcons, falconets, kestrels, merlins, hobbies, and caracaras), (4) Pandionidae (ospreys), and (5) Sagittariidae (secretary birds).8,11
Because of the endangered status of several species, recent decades have seen an increase in environmental awareness and conservation efforts involving raptors. Some examples are the captive breeding and management of the Mauritius kestrel (Falco punctatus); the European Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) Reintroduction Project; and the conservation breeding and release program of the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus).39,55 The Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) is one of the most endangered species of birds of prey in the world.
Unique Aspects of Biology and Anatomy
The anatomy and biology of raptors is very similar to those of other avian species except for some modifications that give them great hunting capabilities. A table of maximum recorded life spans for selected raptor species has been published.29
Special Senses
Falconiformes are generally diurnal and rely heavily on sight to locate food.71 They may perceive ultraviolet light and have a visual field of about 250 degrees, 50 degrees of which is binocular.12 Each eye has two foveae, enabling two planes of vision (the temporal fovea for binocular vision and the central fovea for monocular vision). The exceptions are Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) and black vultures (Coragyps atratus), which have only a nasal fovea.33 The pecten is plicated in most raptors.39
About 10 to 18 ossicles overlap to form a ring encircling the sclera. The sphincter and dilator muscles of the pupil are striated; therefore, unlike mammals, voluntary control may be possible, and atropine has no effect.71 Raptors lack consensual pupillary light reflexes. A slight degree of anisocoria is normal. The pupils of birds that are stressed, especially Accipiter species, become dilated and less responsive to light, and the menace reflex might be absent.45
In most raptors, the sense of smell is poorly developed, except in vultures.71 Most Falconiformes do not have a sense of hearing that is as developed as in Strigiformes; the exception are the harriers, which have a similar facial disk, which directs sounds toward the acoustic meatus.12 Taste buds are located on the base of the tongue.61
Beak
A feature unique to raptors and fundamental to their carnivorous lifestyle is their stout, sharply hooked beak. Falcons have a notch on their maxilla, behind the tip of the upper beak, which forms the tomial tooth that is believed to enable them to easily sever the neck of vertebrate prey. It is important to preserve the tomial tooth when performing any repairs or trimming of the beak.71 If cracks appear in the beak, these should be filed back above the start of the crack.8 Overgrowth of the upper beak is seen in raptors on a diet exclusively of day-old chicks.29
Feathers, Skin, and Glands
With the exception of the northern harrier (Circus cyaneus), American kestrel (Falco sparverius), and merlin (Falco columbarus), the plumage of North American raptors is not sexually dimorphic.71
The integrity of the primary remiges and tail rectrices is of the utmost importance for flight performance in species destined for release.61 Tail feathers of hospitalized raptors should be protected from breakage and soiling by using a tail guard made from an envelope of heavy paper or file folders placed over the tail feathers and affixed to the covert feathers with adhesive tape (Figure 17-1). The technique of feather repair (or imping), involving total or partial feather replacement or splinting may be very beneficial in hastening the return of flight after feather damage.61
Most raptors molt their feathers in symmetrical pairs, one from the right and one from the left, once per year in the early summer, usually after breeding. This graduated symmetrical molt means that only a slight flying handicap exists during the 6 months required for molting.71 The steppe buzzard (Buteo buteo vulpinus) exhibits bizarre chaotic molt pattern.12 Molting in Old World vultures may extend up to 2 to 3 years.8 Some species such as goshawks and eagles molt only partially each year, which permits some degree of distinguishing second- and third-year birds. Once adult plumage is obtained, age cannot be determined by plumage characteristics.52
Induction of molting has been achieved by manipulating the photoperiod or by oral administration of exogenous thyroid hormone. The photoperiod is advanced to 18 to 20 hours of light per day after a period of 4 to 6 weeks of less than 10 hours of light per day. Molting will start within a few weeks and may be completed over 4 to 5 months. The onset and rate of molt with thyroxine administration tends to be very rapid, some birds losing most of their flight feathers nearly simultaneously. Quality of regrown feathers from a forced molt often is less than natural molts.71 Increased ambient temperature may speed up molting, and corticosteroids may retard the progression of a molt.8
As in other avian species, stress marks appear as lines across one or more feathers because of an interruption in the normal flow of nutrients during its growth. Cystine deficiency may lead to weak and broken feathers.8,71
The “pinching off” syndrome is described as follows: normal growth of a feather occurs for one-half to two thirds of its normal growth, after which blood supply withdraws and the feather pinches off in a characteristic hour-glass presentation. The cause of the syndrome has been attributed to quill mites and to viral or genetic etiology.44,71
Skin sweat glands are absent. Infection of the uropygial gland is rare in raptors, but adenocarcinoma and blockage may occur.8 The adrenal glands are paired structures except in a few species such as the bald eagle (Haliaetus leucocephalus) that has fused glands.61
In the Savanna hawk (Buteogallus meridionalis), the supraorbital or salt gland, a paired glandular structure with ducts opening in the nasal cavity, contributes to water and electrolyte homeostasis.39
The Harris’ hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) is the only species of raptors that shows psychological feather plucking, and a temporary beak modification technique to prevent self-mutilation in this species has been described.8,64
Seborrhea sicca (dry skin) is encountered in eagles, especially on the feet of captive birds.8,12 Large pealike subcutaneous abscesses caused by staphylococci are frequently seen in raptors.8 Other skin infections are relatively uncommon in birds of prey.12 Papillomatosis is occasionally seen on the feet and eyelids of raptors.12
Feet
Raptors use their feet to capture their prey. They have thick scales to protect their feet from injury and strong toes that terminate in strongly curved triangular talons.20 Hard papillae on the plantar surface assist in grasping.12 Vultures do not need to capture live animals, so their talons are blunt.12
The digital flexor tendons have unidirectional, interlocking ratcheting mechanisms that resist digital extension when the toes are clenched, a mechanism that makes it difficult to pry open the feet of a restrained raptor.52
Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) have enlarged, highly curved talons, with specialized little spines (spicules) on the ventral surface of the foot, which enable them to grab and hold slippery fish. Ospreys also have the ability to swivel their fourth digit to the rear, making them semi-zygodactylous. All the other Falconiformes species are anisodactyl and perch with three digits forward and one backward.8
The talon of the third digit has a specialized sharp edge on the medial side, used for feather grooming, which should be preserved during any trimming and reshaping.71 To trim the talons and beak, guillotine-type nail clippers, utility knife, flat and round metal files, or hand-held Dremel hand drill may be used.61
Talons may be accidentally torn off. Treatment is accomplished by quickly controlling bleeding, painting the surface with a protective material (e.g., fingernail polish), and affixing a protective cover such as plastic syringe case, vinyl nail caps, or multiple layers of cyanoacrylate glue, with either antibiotic powder and talcum powder or fine sodium bicarbonate powder.61,71 Regrowth of a talon will take up to 6 months.71
Nares
Nares of falcons, Buteo species, and eagles have a bony baffle, or operculum, thought to facilitate air flow in the nostrils during high-speed flight.71
Gastrointestinal Tract
All Falconiformes species, except the bearded vulture, have a crop for the storage of food.31 The stomach of raptors is simple. The pH of the stomach is approximately 1.0 in diurnal raptors prior to eating (1.7 in hawks), and they are capable of digesting bones.12 The ceca is absent or vestigial.71 The gall bladder is usually present.8 The small pancreas is located within the duodenal loop.12 The cloaca is similar to other avian species.71
Escherichia coli, Proteus spp., coagulase-negative Staphylococcus sp., Micrococcus sp., Corynebacterium sp., Bacillus sp., Streptococcus sp., and Salmonella sp. have been isolated from the lower intestines, cloaca, and fecal samples of healthy raptors.12,37
Musculoskeletal Anatomy
Many good diagrams of the anatomy of the wing and pelvic limb of raptors are available.8,39 The femur and humerus are usually pneumatized.8 In the genus Falco, two sesamoid bones are present in the metacarpophalangeal joint and one sesamoid bone in the interphalangeal joint of the major digit. Two intratendinous ossifications are present in the region of the carpometacarpus and the major digit.39 An os prominens is present at the cranial margin of the carpus in Buteo and Accipiter, articulating with the distal radius.39 In falcons, the tarsometatarsus has a medullary cavity running the whole length of the bone. In hawks and eagles, the medullary cavity is absent from the proximal third of the tarsometatarsus.8
Housing
Both indoor facilities (called mews) and outdoor facilities should be provided. Minimum dimensions for a typical 1-kilogram (kg) raptor housed singly are 2 × 3 × 2.5 meters (m) high.71 Shade is important. Some species, including highly migratory species, small-sized Accipiter species, and southern temperate zone species (e.g., Harris’ hawk), cannot tolerate cold and must have supplemental heat when the ambient temperature drops below 0° C. Eagles, red-tailed hawks, goshawks, and most falcons may tolerate extreme cold, as long as they are protected from wind.52 Temperature tolerance guidelines and minimum size requirements have been established for many species.29 Water must be provided at all times for drinking and bathing.
Accipiter cannot be housed with other species, and the sexes of merlins and Northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) should be housed separately, since the larger female may kill her mate. A table of compatible species has been published.8,71
Perches must be considered carefully with regard to size, shape, covering materials, and placement to maintain foot health and comfort. Falcons require broad, flat perches, covered with artificial turf, whereas buteos and goshawks are maintained on perches elliptical in cross-section, sized proportionately to their feet, and wrapped with sisal rope.71 Multiple perches may be detrimental if the birds hop with hard landing, rather than flying, subjecting their feet to bruising.52
Feeding and Nutritional Disorders
All raptors are carnivores. Most Falconiformes obtain a lot of their total daily fluid intake with their food, but they should have access to fresh drinking water daily.8
The smaller raptors eat approximately 20% of their body weight daily, the medium-sized birds eat approximately 10% to 15% of their body weight, and the large birds eat 6% to 8% of their body weight. Regular weighing of birds is important to ensure adequate dietary intake.71 When assist-feeding or force-feeding, the stomach capacity of raptors is 40 milliliters per kilogram (mL/kg).32 Hills A/D (Topeka, KS) or Oxbow Carnivore care (Murdock, NE) may be tube-fed in anorectic birds.
A reduction in food intake is observed in warm weather. A bird that is stressed or has additional energy requirements (e.g., during breeding or molting) will benefit from additional essential amino acids and vitamins. Breeding females should receive calcium and vitamin D3 supplement. Raptor chicks are born with little or no gut flora, and enteritis with bacterial overgrowth is common. The use of probiotics in the first 14 days will reduce such infections.8
Several raptor species egest (regurgitate) castings composed of the undigested remains of the bones and fur of their prey.71 The casting material is usually regurgitated 12 to 18 hours after ingestion, but hawks may eat more than one meal before casting.12,32
Raptors need a diet consisting of the whole bodies of prey species such as domestic quails, chicks, mice, rabbits, and other small birds and rodents. Pigeons are a special risk to raptors because of their high prevalence of trichomoniasis and should be frozen and thawed before feeding.8
Buzzards have a nonspecialized diet and may be scavengers.8 Vultures are obligatory scavengers that may encounter long periods of food deprivation between feedings.39 Most vultures tend to have a calcium-deficient diet because they usually ingest meat and viscera. They depend on large predators to provide them with bone fragments.12 Ospreys require fish. If frozen fish are to be used for food, thiamine needs to be supplemented at 1 to 3 mg/kg.12
A fatty liver–kidney syndrome of merlins, possibly from excessive feeding of day-old chicks and inbreeding, has been recognized.12
Small raptors, particularly Accipiter, are prone to neurologic signs and collapse from hypoglycemia if deprived of food or flown too light in weight on a cold or windy day.8
Bird presenting with neurologic signs that have been fed an all-meat diet should be given glucose, B vitamins (particularly thiamine), vitamin A, and calcium supplementation.71
Young secretary birds (Sagittarius serpentarius) fed on standard raptor diets may suffer a calcium-to-phosphorus imbalance because their principal food in the wild is snakes, which are high in calcium phosphate.12
Secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism (metabolic bone disease) occurs in raptors, and clinical signs are similar to those seen in other avian species. Raptors need vitamin D3, and they cannot utilize vitamin D2.12 The calcium-to-phosphorus ratio should be 2 : 1. This disease, which is problematic in captive raptors, has also been encountered among free-flying vultures in regions where other large predators that would normally crush the bones in carcasses have been eliminated or when parents select pieces of china or plastic instead of bone to supplement the diet of their chicks.52,61
Thiamine deficiency is associated with loss of appetite, “star gazing,” muscle weakness, tremors, opisthotonus, seizures, and death. Thiamine deficiency is most commonly observed in juveniles consuming all-meat diets or piscivorous birds fed thawed fish.71 Treatment includes thiamine by intramuscular injection and diet supplementation. The derangement may become permanent and unresponsive to therapy if not dealt with immediately.71
Vitamin A deficiency causes similar signs as in other species, including white pustules along the mouth, esophagus, crop, and nasal passages; caseous nodules blocking salivary glands, syrinx, or the area under the eyelids; xerophthalmia; polyuria or polydipsia; gout; reduced egg and sperm production; hyperkeratosis of plantar surface of feet, which predisposes to bumblefoot; and reduced immune response leading to diseases such as aspergillosis.71
Signs of vitamin E deficiency include poor muscle function, muscular dystrophy, spastic leg paralysis, degeneration of pipping muscle in neonates with poor hatchability, spraddle legs, muscle twitching, encephalomalacia, incoordination, torticollis, testicular degeneration, infertility, and steatitis.71
Restraint and Handling
Falconry hoods block visual stimuli and have a calming effect, resulting in slower heart rate.12 Alternatively, the bird’s head may be covered with a lightweight towel or cloth.
The feet of raptors must be the first concern for restraint. However, falcons and vultures bite fiercely, as do some eagles.52 Once restrained, the index finger of the handler should always be placed between the bird’s legs to prevent injuries to the legs and provide a good grip.
Methods to restrain hooded raptors from the fist or wild raptors in a box or from a perch have been described.8,61 Condors, large vultures, and eagles should be captured and restrained by two persons. The use of protective gloves is recommended. One person approaches the bird from behind and above with a large blanket and covers the bird, finding the upper legs through the blanket and quickly restraining one leg in each hand. The bird is then lifted and the wings tucked between each arms into the handler’s body. The second person may restrain the head as soon as possible (Figure 17-2). Vultures may regurgitate food from their crop when handled.61
Capture myopathy has been reported in secretary birds. Clinical signs include depression, limb paresia or paralysis, hock-sitting, lateral or sternal recumbency, and death.61
Some kites and hawks will lie in sternal recumbency and feign death when approached.
Anesthesia
It is difficult—if not impossible—to conduct an adequate physical examination on a struggling raptor. Raptors should be fasted for 6 to 8 hours before anesthesia.61 Isoflurane is administered as in other avian species, via a facemask, intubation, an air sac cannula, or a chamber. Arrhythmias with the use of isoflurane have been reported in bald eagles.2 Sevoflurane may also be used.
Injectable anesthetics are unreliable and should only be used if gaseous anesthesia is not available. Ketamine with xylazine has been reported as effective in raptors but has also caused deaths attributed to severe sinus bradycardia.61 Intravenous (IV) ketamine may cause convulsions, prolonged apnea, or immediate cardiac arrest in a number of raptors.61 When using xylazine alone, raptors may show a hypersensitivity to external stimuli.61 Tiletamine zolazepam (Telazol) is suitable to produce anesthesia via parenteral injection.39 Death with the use of alphaxalone has been reported in red-tailed hawks, with high prevalence of sinus arrest and tachycardia.12 Use of continuous rate infusion (CRI) propofol has been studied in red-tailed hawks; it had minimal effects on blood pressure, but effective ventilation was reduced. Prolonged recovery periods with moderate-to-severe excitatory central nervous system (CNS) signs may occur in this species with propofol.28 Ketamine or tiletamine zolazepam have been used orally in bait.39,61 Buprenorphine does not appear to be effective in birds of prey.12 The author of this chapter prefers to use butorphanol as an analgesic, but the frequent administration needed sometimes negates the benefits in highly stressed birds.
Surgery
Surgical conditions in raptors are similar to those in other avian species. Some details of orthopedic surgical techniques are covered later in this chapter. Whole limb amputation usually causes bumblefoot on the remaining foot.8 A scale has been established to serve as a guide to surgeons for digit amputation. If the bird is missing both second digits, one or both halluxes, or all of these parts, it is considered not releasable.10 In male raptors, loss of a wing may be problematic, as the male bird uses its wings to maintain its position on the female during mating.8
Diagnostics
The hematologic assessment may be accomplished by drawing blood from the basilic, metatarsal, ulnar, or right jugular veins. Packed cell volume (PCV) and total plasma solids may be determined, and a blood smear is used for differential counts as well as for detecting parasites and cellular abnormalities.12,71 Many publications have described the reference values for hematology and biochemistry in many species of Falconiformes.8,61
Raptors show a predominantly heterophilic leukogram with leukocytes similar to other avian species. Falconiformes species have relatively large erythrocytes (up to 16 ×8 micrometers [µm]). Mild heterophilia without severe toxic changes, lymphopenia, or both might indicate stress in raptors.12 California condors demonstrate a unique stress leukogram, with white blood cell (WBC) counts ranging between 25 and 30 ×103, thus masking leukocytosis associated with infection.15
Since elevated plasma uric acid concentrations occur postprandially in healthy raptors, blood for uric acid analysis should not be taken until 24 hours after the last meal.8 Increased plasma urea concentration is observed in dehydrated individuals. In prerenal function disorders the ratio between urea and uric acid is high (>6.5 in peregrine falcon).39
Protein electrophoresis has been shown to play an important role in the diagnosis of chlamydophilosis and aspergillosis in raptors and species-specific reference values are available.23,36,61 Falcons with confirmed aspergillosis possibly show lower serum prealbumin values compared with healthy falcons.36
Radiography is an important diagnostic tool. The caudoplantar view of the foot is particularly useful in assessing chronic bumblefoot.61 Gastrointestinal (GI) tract contrast study using fluoroscopy may be performed with the bird standing on a perch or in a cardboard box. Barium sulfate is administered orally at 0.025 to 0.05 milliliter per gram (mL/g) bodyweight. Falcons and hawks have an empty tract after 8 hours.61 In raptors, a recent meal would fill the proventriculus and gizzard and spread the liver shadow, making the liver appear larger, and this must be differentiated from pathologic changes.8 Cardiac size during radiographic examination has been studied in some Falconiformes.4 IV iohexol increases the contrast of the kidneys.8
Reference values for B-mode (two-dimensional) echocardiography have been reported for some diurnal raptors.61 Electrocardiographic (ECG) reference values have been published for conscious golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and buzzards (Buteo buteo) anesthetized with isoflurane.16,27
Microbiologic examination may consist of cultures taken from the oral pharynx and trachea and from freshly voided feces.61 Castings may be used for parasitologic or microbiologic investigations as well as be radiographed to detect metallic objects.12
Comprehensive urinalysis data from healthy falcons have been published.70 Most raptors are positive for blood in urine because of their meat diet. Severe liver disease (e.g., falcon herpes virus) or inanition may increase the secretion of biliverdin, which results in lime-green urine and urates.12,61 Screening for intestinal parasites is done through fecal examination—both direct smear as well as flotation.
In falcons, the “stress or endurance test” may be performed for the assessment of air sacculitis. After 5 to 10 minutes of rest, the falcon is allowed to fly suspended from a leash for an average of 30 seconds. If the bird requires longer than 2 to 3 minutes to return to normal, radiology or endoscopy is indicated.61
Endoscopic examination or biopsy is best performed by a lateral approach through the caudal thoracic air sac into the abdominal air sac.39
Mydriasis for ophthalmic examination may be performed with the use of anesthesia with isoflurane.39 Topical application of the neuromuscular blocking agent rocuronium bromide (0.12 mg per eye) induces mydriasis without adverse effects in European kestrels (Falco tinnunculus).5 Mean intraocular pressure values have been published for some Falconiformes species.54
Computed tomography (CT) may be used to demonstrate the lesions of aspergillosis and the structures of the head.12 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been shown to be superior to radiography in evaluating spinal cord trauma in bald eagles.66
Therapeutics
Only a few pharmacokinetic studies, including those for terbinafine, marbofloxacin, enrofloxacin, itraconazole, piperacillin, and tramadol, have been performed in raptors.7,22,26,34,56,65 A formulary for Falconiformes, with information collated from personal experiences and many textbooks and journals, is provided in Table 17-1. Drug toxicities are covered later in this chapter. Maintenance fluid requirement is 40 to 60 mL/kg/day. A maximal fluid administration rate of 80 to 90 mL/kg/hr may be used for shock therapy. Boluses of fluids at 10 mL/kg/min are well tolerated and usually yield satisfactory results.32
TABLE 17-1
Formulary of Drugs Used in Falconiformes
| Drug (Generic) | Dose (mg/kg) | Frequency | Route | Comments |
| ANTIBIOTICS | ||||
| Amikacin | 15 | BID | IM | |
| Amoxicillin | 150 | BID | IM/PO | |
| Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid | 150 | BID | PO | |
| Amoxicillin-LA | 150 | SID | IM | |
| Ampicillin | 15 | BID | IM | |
| Carbenicillin | 100‑200 | TID | IM | |
| Cefazolin | 50‑100 | BID | IM/PO | |
| Cefotaxime | 75‑100 | BID | IM | |
| Cephalexin | 40‑100 | TID/QID | IM/PO | |
| Cephalothin | 100 | BID | IM | |
| Chloramphenicol | 50 | TID | IM | |
| Ciprofloxacin | 50 | BID | PO | |
| Clindamycin | 50‑100 | SID-BID | PO | |
| Clofazimine | 1.5 | SID | PO | For tuberculosis |
| Cloxacillin | 250 | BID | PO | |
| Cycloserine | 5 | BID | PO | For tuberculosis |
| Doxycycline | 50 | BID | PO | |
| Enrofloxacin | 15 | SID‑BID | IM/PO | Can cause emesis/anorexia |
| Erythromycin | 60 | BID | PO | |
| Ethambutol | 20 | BID | PO | For tuberculosis |
| Gentamicin | 2.5 | TID | IM | |
| Lincomycin | 50‑75 | BID | IM/PO | Intra-articular 0.25‑0.5 ml |
| Marbofloxacin | 10 | SID | PO | In Eurasian buzzards |
| Metronidazole | 50 | SID | PO | |
| Oxytetracycline Long-acting injection | 25‑50 50‑200 | TID Every 3‑5 days | IM/PO IM | |
| Piperacillin | 100 | QID | IM | In red-tailed hawks |
| Ticarcillin | 200 | BID | IM | |
| Tobramycin | 5‑10 | BID | IM | |
| Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine | 20‑30 60 | BID BID | SC PO | |
| Tylosin | 30 | BID | IM | |
| ANTIPROTOZOALS/ANTIHELMINTICS | ||||
| Amprolium | 30 | SID | PO | Thiamine deficiency (merlins) |
| Carnidazole | 20‑25 | Once | PO | |
| Chloroquine | 20‑25 10‑15 | Once At 12, 24, 48 hours | PO | Use with primaquine |
| Chlorsulon | 20 | Every 2 weeks × 3 doses | PO | |
| Clazuril | 5‑10 | Every 3 days ×3 doses or SID × 2 days | PO | |
| Doramectin | 1 | SC/IM | ||
| Fenbendazole | 20‑25 100, | SID Once | PO | |
| Ivermectin | 0.2‑1.0 | Every 14 days × 2‑3 | SC/IM/PO | |
| Levamisole | 20‑40 10‑20 | Once Once | PO SC | |
| Mebendazole | 20 | SID | PO | |
| Mefloquine | 30 | At 0, 12, 24, 48, 72 hours, then weekly | PO | |
| Metronidazole | 50‑100 | SID | PO | |
| Moxidectin | 0.5 | Once | PO | |
| Praziquantel | 5‑10 or 50 | SID; repeat in 14 days | PO/SC/IM | |
| Primaquine | 0.75‑1.0 | Once or SID ×2 | PO | Use with chloroquine |
| Pyrantel | 20 | Once | PO | |
| Pyrimethamine | 0.25‑0.5 | BID | PO | |
| Quinacrine | 5‑10 | SID | PO/IM | |
| Toltrazuril (Baycox) | 15‑25 | SID ×2 days or every other day ×3 doses | PO | Repeat in 2 weeks |
| LEAD TREATMENT | ||||
| Calcium-EDTA | 50‑100 | BID | IV/IM | |
| Dimercaptosuccinic acid | 30 | BID | PO | 5 days on/2 days off (3–5 weeks) |
| D-Penicillamine | 55 | BID | PO | |
| Vitamin C | 250 | SID | PO | |
| Zinc | 25 | SID | PO | |
| ANTIFUNGALS | ||||
| Amphotericin B | 1.5 | TID | IV (slow) | With 10–15 mL/kg fluids |
| Fluconazole | 5 | SID–BID | PO | |
| Flucytosine | 20‑30 40‑50 | QID TID | PO | |
| Itraconazole | Prophylaxis: 10 Therapeutic: 10‑15 | BID for 5 days; then SID for 3 weeks | PO | Gyrfalcons only 8 mg/kg; anorexia or regurgitation |
| Ketoconazole | 60 25 | BID BID | PO IM | |
| Nystatin | 300,000 Units/kg | BID-TID | PO | |
| Terbinafine | 22 | SID | PO | In red-tailed hawks |
| Voriconazole | 10‑15 | BID | PO | |
| SEDATIVES/ANESTHETICS/ANALGESICS | ||||
| Alphaxalone | 5‑10 | IV | Deaths in red-tailed hawks | |
| Atropine | 0.1 | Every 3–4 hours | IV/IM | |
| Butorphanol | 1‑4 | TID–QID | IM | |
| Diazepam | 0.5‑1.5 | As needed | IV/IM | |
| Ketamine | 5‑30 May be given with medetomidine at low end of dose | IM | May cause cardiac arrest or apnea or convulsions; 100 mg/kg in a piece of meat | |
| Medetomidine | 0.15‑0.35 (with ketamine) | IM | Atipamezole to reverse | |
| Midazolam | 0.5‑1.0 | TID | IV/IM | |
| Propofol | 1.33 | IV | 1 mg/kg/min CRI | |
| Tiletamine/Zolazepam | 5‑30 | IM | 80 mg/kg in an oral bait | |
| Tramadol | 5 | BID | PO | In bald eagles |
| Xylazine | 1.0‑2.2 (with ketamine) | IV/IM | Yohimbine to reverse | |
| ANTI-INFLAMMATORIES AND STEROIDS | ||||
| Carprofen | 1‑2 | SID-BID | PO/IM | |
| Dexamethasone | 0.5-2.0 | One dose | IV/IM | |
| Flunixin meglumine | 1‑10 | SID | IM | |
| Ketoprofen | 1‑5 | SID | IM | |
| Meloxicam | 0.5 | BID | IM/PO | |
| Methylprednisolone acetate | 0.5‑1.0 | Once | IM | |
| Prednisolone sodium succinate | 10‑20 | Once | IM/IV | |
| Triamcinolone | 0.1‑0.2 | Once | IM | |
| NEBULIZATION | ||||
| Amphotericin B | 100 mg in 15 mL saline | |||
| Clotrimazole | 7%‑10% solution | With 5% DMSO in polyethylene glycol | ||
| Enrofloxacin | 100 mg in 10 mL saline | |||
| Enilconazole | 1 mL in 9 mL saline | |||
| Gentamicin | 50 mg in 10 mL saline | |||
| Terbinafine | 1 mg in 1 mL saline | |||
| MISCELLANEOUS | ||||
| Acyclovir | 333 80 | BID TID | PO PO | |
| Aminoloid | 0.25‑0.75 | Once, repeat in 14 days | IM | Induction of molt |
| Biotin | 0.05 | SID (30–60 days) | PO | Aid in beak or claw regrowth |
| Calcium glubionate | 25‑150 | BID | PO | |
| Calcium gluconate/borogluconate 10% | 1‑5 mL/kg | Once | IV/SC | |
| Cisapride | 0.25 | TID | PO | |
| Dextrose 50% | 1‑2 mL/kg | As needed | IV slowly | |
| Doxapram | 10 | Once | IV | |
| Dinoprost | 0.02‑0.1 | Once | Topical | On cloaca; for egg binding |
| Furosemide | 0.5‑2.0 | As needed – QID | IV/IM | |
| Imidocarb dipropionate | 5 | Once, repeat in 1 week | IM | To treat Babesia shortii |
| Iron dextran | 10 | Weekly | IM (deep) | |
| Isoxsuprine | 5‑10 | SID | PO | For wing tip edema |
| Lactulose | 0.5 mL | As needed | PO | |
| Leuprolide acetate | 250 µg/kg | Every 14–21 days | IM | |
| Mannitol | 0.25‑2.0 | IV slowly | ||
| Metoclopramide | 2 | TID | IV/IM/PO | |
| Oxytocin | 3‑5 IU/kg | IM | ||
| Pralidoxime chloride | 100 | Repeat after 6 hours | IM | |
| Propentofylline | 5 | BID | PO | For wing tip edema |
| Ranitidine | 0.2‑0.5 | BID | IM | |
| Sucralfate | 25 | TID | PO | |
| Thiamine | 10‑50 | SID | PO | |
| Thyroxine | 100‑800 µg/kg | Daily | PO | |
| Vitamin A | <20 000 IU/kg | Weekly | IM | |
| Vitamin B complex | 10‑30 (of thiamine) | Every other day-weekly | IM | |
| Vitamin E/selenium | 0.05 mg selenium and 3.4 IU vitamin E | Repeat at 72 hours | SC | |
| Vitamin K1 | 0.2‑2.2 | TID, then SID | IM | |
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