Chapter 4 Echocardiography and Doppler Ultrasound
INTRODUCTION
Echocardiography has become the most important diagnostic technique for the diagnosis of canine and feline heart disease. The interaction between ultra-high-frequency sound waves and the heart allows the depiction of cardiac morphology, information on the movement of myocardium and valves, and blood flow within the heart. Echocardiography is complementary to physical examination, radiography and electrocardiography (ECG) and has replaced invasive techniques such as cardiac catheterization for all but a few specific indications.
TYPES OF IMAGING
Two-Dimensional Echocardiography







Figure 4-1 Right parasternal echocardiographic views. A, Long-axis four-chamber view optimized for left ventricular inlet. B, Long-axis view optimized for left ventricular outflow tract. C, Short-axis view at the papillary muscle level. D, Short-axis view at chordal level. E, Short-axis view at mitral valve lavel. F, Short-axis view at the heart base, optimized for left atrium and aortic valve. G, Short-axis view at the heart base, optimized for pulmonary artery. LA, Left atrium; LV, left ventricle; RA, right atrium; RV, right ventricle; Ao, aorta; R, right coronary sinus of Valsalva; L, left coronary sinus of Valsalva; NC, noncoronary sinus of Valsalva; PA, pulmonary artery; rPA, right pulmonary artery.
M-Mode Echocardiography


Figure 4-2 M-mode echocardiograms of the left heart at the mitral valve chordal level (note that the 2D image is moved to the left of the screen to allow correct placement of the cursor) (A); mitral valve leaflet level (B); aortic valve level. (C). IVS, Interventricular septum; LV, left ventricle; LVFW, left ventricular free wall; RV, right ventricle; Ao, aorta; LA, left atrium; LAur, left auricle.
Doppler Echocardiography
Key Point
The angle of the incident ultrasound beam is critical: the ultrasound beam must be parallel with flow (or less than 20° from the direction of flow) or the velocity will be underestimated.
There are several modes of Doppler echocardiography:





Figure 4-3 Doppler echocardiographic studies. A, Mitral inflow obtained from the left caudal parasternal (apical) four-chamber view, with the cursor placed parallel with mitral inflow, and a small sample volume placed at the tips of the mitral valve leaflets when the mitral valve is open. The typical spectral Doppler waveform of mitral inflow displays an early diastolic (E) wave and an atrial contraction (A) wave of filling. B, Aortic flow obtained from the left caudal parasternal (apical) “five–chamber” view, showing left ventricular outflow tract and placement of pulsed wave sample volume in ascending aorta. The typical spectral Doppler waveform of aortic flow is displayed. C, Aortic flow obtained from the subcostal view, showing continuous wave cursor positioned in ascending aorta. The typical spectral Doppler waveform of aortic flow is displayed. D, Tricuspid valve flow obtained the left cranial parasternal view optimized for right ventricular inflow. The pulsed wave sample volume is placed at the tricuspid leaflets tips, with the probe in a cranial position. The spectral waveform is similar to that of mitral inflow, although sometimes an additional systolic forward flow wave is recorded. E, Pulmonary artery flow from the right parasternal short-axis view optimized for right ventricular outflow (left panel) with the pulsed wave sample volume positioned in the main pulmonary artery, and from the right cranial parasternal view optimized for the pulmonary artery (middle panel). The typical spectral Doppler waveform of pulmonary artery flow is displayed. LA, Left atrium; LV, left ventricle; RA, right atrium; RV, right ventricle; CdCV, caudal vena cava; Ao, aorta; RVOT, right ventricular outflow tract; PA, pulmonary artery.

Figure 4-4 Color flow echocardiographic studies of mitral regurgitation. A, Mild mitral regurgitation. The color jet occupies < 20% of the left atrial area. B, Moderate mitral regurgitation. The color mitral regurgitation jet occupies 20% to 40% of the left atrial area. C, Severe mitral regurgitation. The color jet occupies > 40% of the left atrial area (the jet is rebounding from the dorsal LA wall in red), the vena contracta is wide, and a proximal flow convergence region can be seen. D, Right parasternal long-axis view of a dog with severe mitral regurgitation, showing a large vena contracta width (black arrow). E, Left apical view of a dog with severe mitral regurgitation, showing a large proximal flow convergence region. The white arrows indicate the borders of the hemisphere where aliasing is occurring. The larger the hemisphere’s diameter for a particular aliasing velocity (in this case 69 cm/s), the more severe the mitral insufficiency.

Figure 4-5 Echocardiographic evaluation of ventricular diastolic function. A, Normal transmitral flow pattern demonstrating an early filling wave (E) with higher velocity than the atrial contraction wave (A). B, Delayed relaxation transmitral flow pattern demonstrating reduced amplitude and prolonged duration of the E wave. C, Pseudonormal transmitral flow pattern demonstrating a normal E:A velocity ratio, but this is the result of the combined effects of delayed relaxation, increased LA pressures and increased LV stiffness. D, Restrictive transmitral flow pattern. High LA pressures result in increased E wave amplitude despite delayed relaxation. Decreased LV compliance (sometimes with atrial systolic dysfunction) results in a diminished A wave. E, Pulsed wave tissue Doppler (TDI) image of mitral annulus velocity, displaying a systolic wave (S), early diastolic wave (E’) and atrial wave (A’).
Spectral Doppler Echocardiography
Pulsed Wave Doppler
Continuous Wave Doppler
High-Pulse Repetition Frequency Doppler
Color Flow Doppler
Tissue Doppler Imaging
Applications

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