Wildlife

Chapter 13 Wildlife



David L. McRuer, Natalie H. Hall



TABLE 13-1 Checklist for the Care of Sick, Injured, or Orphaned Wildlife.a





























The information contained within this section is designed to help a veterinarian triage and provide basic stabilizing care to injured or orphaned wildlife. The veterinarian is strongly encouraged to transfer these animals to or consult with experienced wildlife veterinarians or wildlife rehabilitators as soon as possible. In addition, any individual working with wildlife should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements. In the event of any bites inflicted by rabies vector species or wild mammals showing neurologic signs to persons or domestic pets, the local health department should be contacted regarding appropriate rabies prevention procedures.


A. Regulations and reporting



a. Permits: check with state and federal officials on laws and permit requirements for hospitalizing wildlife; if you do not have permits, stabilize the animal and transport it to a permitted facility as soon as possible.


b. Species reporting: check with state wildlife officials for a list of reportable endangered, threatened, or listed species; these may vary from state to state.


c. Illegal activity: report injuries caused by illegal activities such as gunshot wounds to non-game species to local, state, or federal wildlife authorities.


d. Reportable diseases: reportable or foreign animal diseases diagnosed in wildlife should be reported to the USDA-APHIS Area Veterinarian-in-charge (http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/area_offices/).


e. Banded birds: band numbers on federally banded birds should be reported to the US Geological Survey Bird Banding Laboratory (http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/bbl/).


f. Advise the public not to approach rabies vector species and to contact local authorities instead. In addition, bats should never be handled bare handed. If a rescuer has handled a rabies vector species, report any potential rabies exposure (bite or contact with saliva through broken skin or mucous membranes) to the local health department.



B. Patient background



a. Is the “orphan” truly an orphan? If not, return to nest or site found since natural parents provide the best care. Human scent will not cause rejection of the young by the mother.


i. Fledgling birds normally spend time on the ground before gaining full flight ability. The parents will continue to feed and guard the fledgling.

ii. Adult rabbits and deer normally leave their young unattended for much of the day. Parents will return to the site where offspring were left to reunite, often hours later. Check for a “milk line” in young rabbits to determine if they were recently fed.

b. Get precise information. When was animal found? Exact location? Circumstances? Has any medical or supportive care been provided?


c. Obtain rescuer’s name, address, and phone number in case further details are required.



C. Initial patient triage



a. What is medically wrong with the animal? Can it be treated, survive the rehabilitation period (sometimes months), and be released or placed into an education program? Unfortunately, euthanasia is often required.


b. Address life-threatening problems first. ABC: Check that the airway is clear, the animal is breathing, and cardiac beat and pulse are present. Provide cardiopulmonary resuscitation if needed.


c. Control hemorrhage. Total blood loss of more than 1% of body weight is considered an emergency. Remove broken blood feathers by pulling feather shaft out of follicle with straight, steady pressure. Apply direct pressure to hemorrhage sites. Use topical epinephrine, cautery, and ligation if needed.


d. Assess for shock. Evaluate neonates for hypoglycemia and hypothermia. Clinical signs include cold extremities, pale and tacky mucous membranes, and rapid heart rate. Treat with fluids, supplemental heat if needed, and treat hypoglycemia with intravenous or oral dextrose. Treat hyperthermia with fluids, placing patient in a cool place, and spraying limbs with cool water.


e. Perform full examination once patient is stable. Examination may need to be delayed, limited to a cursory exam, or done in stages to minimize patient stress.


i. If possible, determine species, gender, life stage, body condition, weight.

ii. Is zoonotic disease or infectious disease a concern? Isolate patient if necessary.


D. Develop treatment and supportive care plan



a. Assume most wildlife patients are 10% dehydrated on admission. Provide hydrating solutions and electrolyte support for the first 24 to 48 hours parenterally (Normasol, 2.5% dextrose, LRS, 0.9% saline) or orally with Pedialyte (Abbott), Gatorade (Gatorade), or Bounce Back (Manna Pro). Continue to treat if ongoing fluid losses occur. Most birds, reptiles, and mammals can be triaged with fluids based on an assumed maintenance rate of 40-60 mL/kg/day, 10-25 mL/kg/day, and 60 mL/kg/day, respectively.


b. Provide supplemental heat to neonates at 80-90°F (27-32°C). Keep heating pads on low to prevent thermal burns. Use wrapped hot water bottles and warmed air.


c. Treat and prevent infection. Most open wounds will require antimicrobial therapy.


d. Provide analgesia and antiinflammatory medications if needed. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs are useful for soft tissue injury, head trauma, and spinal trauma. Steroids may be useful for acute spinal trauma and shock in mammals however their use in birds may be controversial. Opioids are useful for severe soft tissue injury and fractures.


e. Develop nutritional plan (see additional appendices for diets and husbandry guidelines). Attempt to calculate the calories needed for each day’s feeding. Except for neonates, do not provide food for the first 24 hours while the animal is being rehydrated. Emaciated animals may need special diets (Emeraid Nutritional Care System [Lafeber]) to avoid refeeding syndrome.


f. Neonatal animals must be stimulated to urinate and defecate by gently brushing anal and genital areas with moist cotton or clean tissue after each feeding.


g. Determine appropriate housing. The main goals are safety and to reduce stress on the animal by preventing noise and visual stimulation. In general, minimize contact to people and domestic animals.



E. Rehabilitation



a. Contact the International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council (707-864-1761; www.iwrc-online.org) or the National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association (320-259-4086; www.nwrawildlife.org) to find a rehabilitator near you.


b. Transfer the animal to a qualified rehabilitator for continued therapy and to prepare the animal for release.


c. Rehabilitators are often familiar with animal nutrition and natural history and can provide initial supportive care recommendations as well.



F. Release criteria



a. Animals must meet the following criteria in order to be released to the wild:


i. Initial illness or injury is resolved with no risk of recurrence.

ii. All secondary problems have been resolved.

iii. The animal does not pose an unnatural risk to the wild population, humans, or the environment. It is not likely to spread pathogens or contribute to disease processes in other ways. The animal does not pose a zoonotic risk.

iv. The animal can effectively avoid predators.

v. The animal is able to find food by foraging or hunting in the wild.

vi. The animal can function reasonably within the population and can reproduce.

b. Animals should be released at the original site of capture unless conservation efforts or safety considerations dictate otherwise. Animals should be released in their natural environment and habitat suitable for species survival but in areas away from traffic, people, and pets. The habitat must be within carrying capacity for the species. Release diurnal species in the morning and nocturnal species at dusk. Check local and state laws regarding release of rabies vector species and deer.


c. Animals that cannot be returned to the wild for any reason should be euthanized unless they can be placed in educational, breeding, or research programs.


Web resources:


National Wildlife Rehabilitation Association—http://www.nwrawildlife.org/home.asp


International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council—http://theiwrc.org/


Wildlife Center of Virginia—www.wildlifecenter.org


Wildlife Disease Information Node—http://wildlifedisease.nbii.gov/


USGS National Wildlife Health Center—http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/


U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service—http://www.fws.gov/


Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study—http://www.scwds.org/


Birds of North America Online—http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/


World Organization for Animal Health—http://www.oie.int/eng/en_index.htm


National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians—http://www.nasphv.org/


a See references in following appendices.



TABLE 13-2 Recommendations for the Captive Management of Carnivores/Omnivores.2–4,6–8,10–12,17–19,21,23,25,26,29,31,32,36,38,44
















































































































Topic Notesa,b
Feeding Guidelines
  All young carnivores need the anogenital region stimulated after each feeding for urination/defecation. Very difficult to rear and release single animals.
Badger Esbilac (PetAg) or Zoologic Milk Matrix 42/25 (76%) + 30/55 (24%) (PetAg); 2-3× daily; wean at 8-10 wk onto canned and dry dog or cat food and native food.
Bobcat/Canada lynx KMR (PetAg), Esbilac (PetAg), or Zoologic Milk Matrix 42/25 (PetAg) and yogurt; 6-8× daily; provide 250 mg taurine per day if milk replacer is not already supplemented. Feed with orphan kitten bottle until drinking formula from a pan. Feed 15-20% of body weight/day split between feedings. Wean starting at 5 wk onto kitten chow or Mazuri Feline Diet soaked in formula and rodents. Gradually introduce live rodents.
Coyote Esbilac (PetAg), Zoologic Milk Matrix 30/55 (51%) + 42/25 (37%) + 33/40 (12%) (PetAg), or Fox Valley 34/40; 2-4× daily; wean at 5-7 wk onto puppy canned or dry food and rodents (e.g., chopped skinned rats or pureed mice) with 5% fruit and 5% vegetables. May begin nibbling on pureed rodents (or dog food) at 10 days of age. Gradually introduce live rodents.
Gray and red fox Esbilac (PetAg), Zoologic Milk Matrix 33/40 (56%) + 20/14 (26%) + 42/25 (18%) (PetAg), or Fox Valley 35/32 using an orphan kitten bottle. Once eyes are open, start offering formula in a dish. Feed neonates 5% of body weight at each feeding; 100-200 g kits 7-8× daily; 200-400 g kits 6× daily; 400-900 g kits 5× daily; 900-1000 g kits 4× daily. May begin nibbling on pureed rodents (or soaked puppy chow) at 10 days of age. Start weaning at 3 wk by offering puppy chow soaked in formula in a shallow dish. At 6 wk, reduce formula and gradually start adding canine diet, thawed rats/mice, fruits. Wean at 7-8 wk onto puppy canned and dry food, rodents (e.g., pureed mice) with 5% fruit and 5% vegetables. Gradually introduce live rodents. Feed adults canine food with thawed rats/mice and 10% vegetables.
Raccoon KMR (PetAg), Zoologic Milk Matrix 42/25 (100%) (PetAg), Zoologic Milk Matrix 42/25 (87%) + 20/14 (13%), or Fox Valley 40/25. Wear latex gloves due to risk for Baylisascaris procyonis. If eyes still closed or weak, can tube feed by nasoesophageal gavage with a 8-, 10-, or 12-Fr red rubber catheter; otherwise dish feed. Until 3-4 wk of age, feed 5% body weight 6× daily until 500 g then reduce to 4× daily. At 400 g start offering raccoon mush (soaked puppy chow, Gerber high-protein baby cereal, KMR powder, add water to make an oatmeal-like consistency). Reduce feedings to 3× daily at 800 g, 2× daily at 1000 g, once daily at 1100 g, and fully wean at 1200 g. At 1200 g, start to add hard puppy chow to mush diet and after 2 kg, give adult diet of hard puppy chow, whole prey items such as mice/fish, and 10% fruits and vegetables.
Skunk Esbilac (PetAg), Zoologic Milk Matrix 30/55 (78%) (PetAg) + Non-fat Dry Milk (22%) or Fox Valley 32:45; 2-4× daily depending on the age; wear latex gloves due to risk for Baylisascaris columnaris. Wean at 6-8 wk onto dry puppy food, rodent pellets, and native food. Add 10% vegetables and 5% fruit. Feed adults dog food, thawed rodents, eggs, insects, worms, fruits, and berries.
River otter Zoologic Milk Matrix 30/55 (100%) (PetAg); Fox Valley 30/50; 3 parts Esbilac (PetAg) + 1 part heavy cream + 4 parts water; otters <4 wk, feed 2 Tbs per 4 oz of body weight divided between 5-7 feedings. Feed every 2-3 hr during daylight hr with the last feeding at 10 pm. At 4 wk, feed 1 oz 3-6× daily. At 6 wk, feed 2.5 oz 4× daily. At 8 wk, add a small amount of rice cereal to the formula and introduce small bits of adult food. At 10 wk, add ground fish, tadpoles, or growth kitten food to diet. Offer free choice smelt and dry kitten food between feedings. Offer water for drinking. At 7 mo, otters may weigh ∼14 lb (6.4 kg) and may be given 4 oz canned feline Hill’s Science Diet + ¾ lb caplin + ¾ lb smelt + 4 baby carrots all divided into 3 feedings during a 24-hr period. Adult diet mainly consists of fish (cut if large) with occasional alternatives such as chicken necks, boiled eggs, crickets, giant mealworms, mice, etc.
Critical Care
  Tube feed critical adults a carnivore diet such as Lafeber Emeraid carnivore formula, Oxbow carnivore care, or Hill’s a/d canine/feline critical care diet.
Housing
  Animals that are imprinted or habituated should not be released. To avoid imprinting, limit human contact and avoid talking within hearing distance of animal. Offer food by self-feeder or with visual blinds when possible.
  House newborns in neonatal incubator or small kennel kept at 85°F (29.4°C) with 60-70% humidity. Juvenile kits/cubs may be kept in a towel-lined cardboard box inside a kennel with a heating pad under one half for warmth. Ignore crying by kits and cubs. Do not offer water in enclosures until the animals have their eyes open. At weaning, animals can be moved to enclosed outdoor pens and supplemental heat gradually decreased. Once weaned, animals can be kept in full outdoor enclosures with hiding spots (logs/airline kennels). If housing an adult in an airline kennel, keep a towel over the door to reduce visual stimulus and stress.
  Raccoons have articulate forepaws that make them capable of opening doors and latches. Provide towels and litter box in cage and if possible a small hammock. Sturdy food and water bowls should be used. Baylisascaris procyonis ova are virtually indestructible and may last in the environment for years. House in a kennel that can be discarded or properly disinfected by flame torch.
  River otters should not be introduced to water until 3 mo of age. Otter pups can easily drown so start with a small bowl. When they can blow bubbles, increase pool size but ensure the pup can still stand. Increase tank size with ability. Always towel off pups after swimming. Include safe toys as otters are very curious.
Safe Restraint
  Always wear latex gloves under leather work gloves during restraint of an animal. Wear eye protection when handling species that spray, such as skunks.
  Badgers, foxes, coyotes, bobcats, and lynx—young kits/cubs weighing less than 1 kg can be handled by wearing latex gloves under long leather gloves and caught up by wrapping in a thick towel or blanket. For long procedures or fractious adults, anesthetize by injectable/inhalant combinations. Larger animals over 3 kg inject using squeeze cage, netting, or syringe pole. Do not scruff animals for restraint since they can still turn and bite. Restrain by grasping the head around the back of the neck and holding the dorsal pelvis with the legs aimed away from your abdomen to avoid personal injury. Use muzzles to prevent biting.
  Raccoons—infants/juveniles may be restrained by the scruff of the neck or by holding the shoulder area of the forelegs with one leg in each hand. Animals tend to scream, grasp, or bite at the gloves and may urinate with handling. Restrain older juveniles and adults with chemical or a combination of chemical and gas anesthesia.
  Skunk—limit handling in this species to avoid being sprayed from the musk glands. For young animals, attempt to drape a towel or plastic sheet and tuck the tail between the hind legs to decrease the possibility of being sprayed. Restrain older juveniles and adults with chemical and/or gas anesthesia.
  River otters—natural defense is to bite, grasp, and twist which may cause significant tissue trauma. Adult animals may need to be anesthetized for restraint.
Physical Examination Notes
  Badger age determination—newborn weighs 90-100 g; first teeth erupt at 4 wk; eyes open at 5 wk; weaning starts at 2-3 mo; fully weaned by 5-6 mo. Adult weights: 6-8 kg in summer and 8-12 kg in fall.
  Bobcat/Canada lynx age determination—eyes open 11-14 days after birth. Bobcat deciduous teeth erupt in the following sequence: incisors 11-14 days, canines 11-14 days, premolars 4-7 wk. Permanent teeth erupt: incisors 17-21 wk, canines 22 wk, premolars 24-29 wk, molars 23-28 wk. Bobcat weights: neonates up to 283-368 g; adults range 4-15 kg. Lynx weights: neonates range 197-211 g; adults range 5.1-17.2 kg.
  Coyote age determination—newborn 250-300 g; eyes open 13-14 days; incisors and canines erupt at 2-3 wk. Adults weigh 9-16 kg.
  Fox age determination—newborn weighs 100 g, blind, deaf, 10 cm long, short black fur; eyes open at 11-14 days; by 4 wk kits are walking and fur is beginning to shed. Deciduous teeth erupt in the following sequence: incisors 18-22 days, canines 21-22 days, premolars 22-29 days. Permanent teeth erupt: incisors 15-18 wk, canines 17-19 wk, premolars 15-22 wk, molars 16-27 wk. At 5-6 wk, kits weigh 600-700 g; by 8-20 wk, kits are completely weaned, snout and ears become long and pointed, and are learning to hunt with parents; by 6 mo, kits weigh at least 3.5 kg and are ready for independence from parents but usually stay with parents for a year. Adults weigh 3-10 kg (gray foxes generally smaller than red foxes).
  Raccoon age determination—newborn 60-75 g, back sparsely furred and eyes and ears are closed. At 2 wk, face mask is fully haired as well as the back. At 1.5-3 wk, ears and eyes are open. At 3 wk, the tail rings are fully furred. At 3-4 wk, the kits squirm actively and chitter but cannot support their weight on their legs. At 4 wk, deciduous incisors erupt. At 4-6 wk, the animals begin walking. At 6 wk, deciduous 2nd-4th premolars erupt. At 8 wk, deciduous first premolars and permanent first incisors erupt. At 10 wk, permanent second incisors and first molars erupt. At 12 wk, permanent third incisors erupt. At 14 wk, permanent canines erupt. By 16 wk, most wild animals are weaned. Adults weigh up to 12 kg.
  Skunk age determination—eyes open 22-35 days; ears open 24-27 days; musk glands fully developed at 28 days; wean at 2 mo. Adults weigh 1.2-2.5 kg up to 5.3 kg in fall.
  River otter age determination—eyes open between 31-33 days but cannot focus until 50-60 days. Day 36, pup will walk with unsteady movements. Day 60, pup will put head under water. Day 57-60, pup will begin to eat solid food. Birth weight is 128 g. Weight guidelines are as follows: week 1, 266 g; week 2, 515 g; week 3, 660-900 g; week 4, 757-1180 g; week 5, 997-1560 g; week 6, 1200-1428 g; week 7, 1160-2072 g; week 8, 1650-1907 g; week 9, 1914-2300 g; week 10, 1670-2420 g. Adults weigh up to 15 kg.
Venipuncture
  Medial saphenous vein, lateral saphenous vein, jugular vein, cephalic vein, ventral coccygeal vein, femoral vein, cranial vena cava (in otters).
Fluid Administration
  Subcutaneous between shoulder blades; intravenous in medial and lateral saphenous vein, cephalic vein, jugular vein; intraosseus in small critically ill animals.
  Maintenance fluid rate 60 mL/kg/day
  Hetastarch dose 10-15 mL/kg/day
Release Tips
  Release of young animals: badgers ∼5 mo; black bear ∼45 kg; bobcats/lynx ∼4-5 mo; coyote ∼5-6 mo; foxes ∼5-6 mo; raccoons ∼3.5 kg; skunks ∼3-4 mo; river otters ∼7-12 mo.

a Although this outline is intended to provide general guidelines for the care of injured wildlife, the veterinarian is strongly encouraged to transfer these animals to experienced rehabilitators as soon as possible and/or to contact rehabilitators if questions arise. In addition, any individual working with wildlife should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements.


b Avoid overfeeding of orphaned wild mammals.



TABLE 13-3 Recommendations for the Captive Management of Opossums.9–10,12,14,17,20–21,27,31,33,36,43
























































































Topic Notesa
Feeding Guidelines
  Stimulate neonates to urinate and defecate at feedings by gently wiping anogenital area with soft gauze or tissue.
Nestling Neonates: 20-35 g tube feed with 3.5-Fr red rubber feeding tube. Use 5-Fr tube for 36-60 g patients or syringe feed using IV catheter without stylet for all neonates. For neonates weighing 10-20 g, feed 0.5 mL 5×/day; 21-30 g, feed 0.5-1 mL 5×/day; 31-54 g, feed 1.5-2 mL 3×/day; 55-74 g, feed 2.5-3.5 mL 2×/day; 75-100 g, feed 4-5 mL 1×/day. Formulas: before eyes open, feed 2 parts Esbilac powder (PetAg), 1 part Zoologic Milk Matrix 30/55 powder (PetAg), 4 parts warm water, ½ tsp dicalcium phosphate (26:18.5) powder (UPCO). After eyes open, feed 1 part Esbilac powder, 2 parts warm water, ½ tsp dicalcium phosphorus powder. Feeding over 8% body weight can result in diarrhea.
Weanling Start weaning at 45 g with juvenile mash in a bowl. Mash is 2 Tbs infant opossum tube feeding formula, 1 Tbs baby rice cereal, and 2 Tbs high-quality puppy kibble. Check stomach for fullness and reduce tube feedings to avoid overfilling. At 55-75 g, offer small pieces of soft food and free choice water. At 75-100 g, offer finely chopped mice. Fully wean by 100 g. Calcium supplementation is recommended.
Juvenile 100-200 g individuals. Juvenile meal is 4 Tbs soaked puppy chow, 1 Tbs meat-based baby food, 2 Tbs canned puppy food, 1 Tbs cat chow, several small chunks of soft vegetables (i.e., broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, sweet potato, squash), 1-2 pieces of finely chopped fruit, and ⅕ of a chopped mouse with bones included.
Adult Feed 6 Tbs of dry cat food, ½ cup small vegetable chunks, 2-3 small pieces of fruit, 7 Tbs canned dog food, several earthworms, 1 hard-boiled egg with shell, and one whole mouse. Calcium supplementation is recommended.
Critical Care
  Syringe or tube feed high protein diet such as Emeraid Lafeber carnivore formula, Oxbow carnivore care, or Hill’s a/d canine/feline critical care diet.
Housing
  Incubate but not over 95°F (35°C) in sturdy box or aquarium. Use towels and a small box to provide a nest/pouch. Once walking, house in a cage with mesh too small for the head to pass through. Line the floor with newspaper to prevent foot trauma. Avoid towels with terry-cloth or loops in which nails can become caught. Group animals of similar size together shortly before eyes open (before 45 g). To prevent cannibalism, avoid overcrowding and isolate wounded animals. House adults in sturdy enclosures with a hiding spot.
Safe Restraint
  Appropriate protective gear includes elbow length leather gloves for protection against teeth and nails. Anesthesia may be required for examination of adults.
Physical Examination Notes
  Joeys stay attached to teat for 60 days; eyes open about 63 days; weaning at 87 to 104 days. Euthanasia is recommended for opossums less than 20 g due to difficulties associated with tube feeding. Remove from teat carefully taking care not to injure jaw. Joeys nursing on deceased Jill should receive prophylactic antibiotics.
  Epipubic bones are palpable in caudal abdomen. Have a cloaca instead of separate anogenital orifices. Body temperature ranges from 91.4°F-96.8°F (33-36°C). Besnoitia darlingi parasitism causes generalized, diffuse, small palpable nodules in subcutaneous tissue that are visible on radiographs. Lifespan is ∼1-2 years in wild, ∼2-3 years in captivity.
Venipuncture
  Lateral coccygeal and ventral tail vein/artery, cephalic vein, saphenous vein, pouch vein in females.
Fluid Administration
  Sites: SC supra/intrascapular area, flank; 100-200 mL per site.
Maintenance rate 60 mL/kg/day.
Release Tips
  Release if self-feeding, acclimated to the outdoors, and at least 4-5 months old (≥500 g).
 
  Amoxicillin 10 mg/kg PO q12h
Ceftiofur 2 mg/kg IM q24h × 7-10 days
  Buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg SC, IM q6-8h
  Carprofen 1 mg/kg PO, SC q12-24h
  Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg PO, SC q24h
  Diazepam 0.5-2 mg/kg PO, IM, IV, once
  Itraconazole 5 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days for gastrointestinal candidiasis
  Nystatin 50,000 U PO q8h for joeys with gastrointestinal candidiasis

a Although this outline is intended to provide general guidelines for the care of orphaned wildlife, the veterinarian is strongly encouraged to transfer these animals to experienced rehabilitators as soon as possible and/or to contact rehabilitators if questions arise. In addition, any individual working with wildlife should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements.



TABLE 13-4 Recommendations for the Captive Management of Cottontail Rabbits.4,12,21,24,29,31,33–37




































































Topic Notesa–c
Feeding Guidelines
  Stimulate neonates to urinate and defecate at feedings by gently wiping anogenital area with soft gauze or tissue.
Nestling Esbilac (PetAg) and Multi Milk (PetAg) 3:2 (1.91 kcal/mL); Esbilac powder, Multi Milk powder, and water 1:1:1.5 (2.01 kcal/mL); KMR (PetAg), Multi Milk powder 2:1 (1.73 kcal/mL); Esbilac powder, heavy cream, water 1:0.25:1 (1.93 kcal/mL). Prior to feeding, correct hypothermia and dehydration with SC or PO electrolytes (Pedialyte, Abbott); first feeding give 1:1 formula and electrolyte; if feeding is well tolerated give 100% formula on the next feeding. If rabbit is BAR, syringe feed with 1 or 3 cc syringe in the corner of the rabbit’s mouth. If too weak, tube feed with red rubber tube. Feed 2-3×/day. Give 100-125 mL/kg at each feeding. After feedings clean face and stimulate anogenital region to induce urination/defecation.
Weanling Cottontails wean at 150-200 g body weight. Offer roughage once eyes are open. Once eating roughage, reduce formula feeding to once daily. Wean completely after another 5-7 days. If available, feed cecotrophs from adults to pre-weanling rabbits for 2-3×/wk until fully weaned.
Juvenile/adult Offer roughage including leafy greens, good quality grass hay such as timothy/orchard/oat (not alfalfa), lettuces (not iceberg), kale, broccoli, parsley, cilantro, dandelion greens, collards, mustard greens, turnip greens. Avoid apples and carrots (high in sugars) and processed cereals.
Critical Care
  If not eating, syringe feed juvenile/adults Oxbow Herbivore Critical Care or Lafeber Emeraid Herbivore Nutritional Care.
Housing
  Incubate neonates at 80-85°F (26.7-29.4°C); house weanlings at 70-75°F (21-23.9°C); once weaned keep outdoors in wire mesh bottom cage with areas of solid flooring to prevent foot lesions. Provide hide areas and natural cover to prevent stress.
Safe Handling and Restraint
  Appropriate protective gear includes a towel or light gloves for adults. Cover with a towel before picking up to reduce stress. Restrain so that patient cannot kick out and injure its back. Avoid over handling and anesthetize for prolonged restraint.
Physical Examination Notes
  Body temperature should be 100-103°F (37.5-39.5°C); obligate nasal breathers; cannot vomit. Cecotrophs (large soft brown-green feces) are normal and are usually passed and consumed overnight. Check newly acquired neonates for a “milk line” (hold the rabbit in a vertical position and look for a white line in the stomach seen through the skin) which indicates the neonate was recently fed and should be returned to the nest. Neonates (still in the nest) are born with only fine slate grey fur on their back, eyes shut, the ears lie flat against the back, and their bodies are 5 cm (2 in) long. Young rabbits that are 10 cm (4 in) in length, whose ears are erect, and can hop quickly are at least 3 weeks old and are independent.
Venipuncture Sites
  Jugular vein, cephalic vein, femoral vein, lateral saphenous vein.
Fluid Administration
  Sites: IV catheter in cephalic or lateral saphenous vein (visualize above the hock); SC between the scapulae.
  Maintenance rate is based on daily water consumption (100-150 mL/kg/day) and should be given in 2-3 equal treatments over a 24-hr period.
Natural History
  Doe normally leaves young unattended for long periods between feedings and will avoid nest in the presence of predators such as dogs, cats, and humans. Verify nestlings are truly orphaned prior to permanent removal from nest.
Release Tips
  Release at 5 wk of age once weaned and acclimated to local outdoor temperatures. Release early in the day in an area with plenty of brush for hiding.
Commonly Used Medication
  Improper antibiotic therapy causes gastric dysbiosis so avoid narrow spectrum antimicrobials such as amoxicillin, penicillin, ampicillin, clindamycin, lincomycin, erythromycin, and cephalosporins. See rabbit chapter (Chapter 9) for pharmacology information.

a Although this outline is intended to provide general guidelines for the care of injured wildlife, the veterinarian is strongly encouraged to transfer these animals to experienced rehabilitators as soon as possible and/or to contact rehabilitators if questions arise. In addition, any individual working with wildlife should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements.


b Avoid overfeeding of orphaned wild mammals.


c In order to prevent aggressive behavior between individuals, avoid housing weaned rabbits together in the same enclosure if they were not introduced prior to weaning.



TABLE 13-5 Recommendations for the Captive Management of Wild Rodents.4,6,10,11,21,28,33,36




















































































Topic Notesa
Feeding Guidelines
  Stimulate neonates to urinate and defecate at feedings by gently wiping anogenital area with soft gauze or tissue.
Neonate Neonates typically need 0.4-0.8 kcal/g of body weight per day.
  Beavers: Esbilac (PetAg) and Multi Milk (PetAg) 2:1 or Esbilac and Zoologic 30/55 (PetAg) and water 2:2:3; feed 3-4× daily.
  Squirrels: Esbilac, Multi Milk, Zoologic 30/55 mixed 1:1 with water; Fox Valley 32/40 mixed 3:1 with water; administer formula in syringe with animal on its belly allowing squirrel to grasp syringe with front feet; feed 6-8× daily.
  Woodchucks and marmots: Esbilac or Zoologic 33/40 and water 4:5; feed 2-4× daily.
  Rehydrate neonates prior to starting formula with oral electrolytes; initiate formula administration by feeding formula:electrolytes at 1:3, then 1:1, then 3:1 mixtures. If at any time patient becomes bloated or has diarrhea/vomiting, return to the previously tolerated dilution. Initially, feed no more than 5% body weight per feeding. This may be increased up to 7% once patient is over 100 g.
Weanling Beavers: wean at 8 wk onto rodent pellets and native food (shrubs, twigs, branches, dark leafy greens, etc.).
  Squirrels: wean by 6 wk onto rodent pellets, vegetables, fruit, and a variety of nuts and grains.
  Woodchucks and marmots: wean at 6-8 wk onto rodent or rabbit pellets and native forage (vegetables, fresh grasses, dandelions, grains, fruit, seed, and nuts).
Adult Rodent pellets, vegetables, grains, fruits, nuts; provide native forage for beavers (include branches), woodchucks, and marmots.
Critical Care
  If not eating, syringe feed juvenile/adults Oxbow Herbivore Critical Care or Lafeber Emeraid Herbivore Nutritional Care to strictly herbivorous species. Omnivorous species may receive both herbivore and carnivore formulas.
Housingb
  Neonates should be housed in incubator at 85-90°F (30-32°C) and humidity at 70-80%. Juveniles need to be housed in a chew-proof and escape-proof wire cage or aquarium with a hide-box containing towels. Line cage with paper or towels. Minimize human exposure to prevent habituation/imprinting. Adults should be housed in a chew-proof wire cage/crate/enclosure with a hiding place and branches for climbing.
Safe Handling and Restraint
  Adults of these species can deliver hard bites. Appropriate protective wear includes leather gloves to the elbow. Use nets for initial restraint of larger rodents. A noose-style catch pole may be appropriate for initial restraint of large beavers.
Physical Examination Notes
  Assess neonates for hypothermia and hypoglycemia; warm hypothermic patients prior to feeding; fleas are common and manual removal is safest; in climbing species, facial, nasal, pelvic, and spinal trauma are common from falls.
  Age determination of squirrels: newborn—body pink and hairless, eyes and ears sealed; 1-2 wk—hair growth begins, skin color darkens, eyelids obvious; 2-3 wk—fur coloration takes on adult pattern, lower incisors erupt; 3-4 wk—eye slits begin to open at corners; 4-5 wk—eyes open; 5-6 wk—upper incisors erupt, ears open; 6-7 wk—weaning occurs in ground squirrels; 10 wk—weaning occurs in tree squirrels.
Venipuncture Sites
  Small rodents often require cranial vena cava venipuncture under anesthesia; larger species have accessible jugular veins, cephalic veins, and medial and lateral saphenous veins; beavers have accessible tail vein.
Fluid Administration
  Neonatal patients and adults of small species require SC or PO administration. Adults of larger species may tolerate a cephalic or saphenous catheter if in a compromised mental state.
  Maintenance fluid rate 50-100 ml/kg/day.
Release Tips
  Release squirrels at 12-14 (occasionally 10) wk. Release woodchucks and marmots at 14-16 wk. Release early in the day in an area with brush for hiding or trees for climbing.
Commonly Used Medication
  Improper antibiotic therapy causes gastric dysbiosis. Avoid narrow spectrum antimicrobials such as amoxicillin, penicillin, ampicillin, clindamycin, lincomycin, erythromycin, and cephalosporins. See rodent chapter (Chapter 8) for pharmacology information.

a Although this outline is intended to provide general guidelines for the care of injured wildlife, the veterinarian is strongly encouraged to transfer these animals to experienced rehabilitators as soon as possible and/or to contact rehabilitators if questions arise. In addition, any individual working with wildlife should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements.


b In order to prevent aggressive behavior between individuals, avoid housing weaned squirrels together in the same enclosure if they were not introduced prior to weaning.



TABLE 13-6 Recommendations for the Captive Management of Birds of Prey.1,5,10,15,16,28–30,41,42


























































































Topic Notesa
Species Identification
  Many field guides exist for birds of prey, including: Sibley Birds of North America,42 Peterson Field Guides—Hawks,5 and National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America.30 Also, see the Cornell Ornithology Lab’s Birds of North America online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/.
Feeding Guidelines
Nestling Hand-feed with an adult conspecific puppet or blunted end tweezers. Cover person’s head and body with a sheet or disguise to prevent imprinting. Feed small pieces of furless, chopped prey soaked in water to increase moisture content. Feed until satiated 3-4×/day. Feed approximately 20-25% body weight. Hatchlings require 2-3 times the amount required by an adult. Be sure food does not rest on top of glottis to avoid asphyxiation.
Fledgling Start by hand-feeding as with nestling. Once eating well, offer whole prey chopped into small pieces on a flat plate in the morning prior to hand-feedings to give patient the opportunity to eat on own volition. Once patient is eating without assistance, gradually increase food size until offering whole prey items. Young raptors cannot tear whole prey until fully developed. Feed approximately 20-25% body weight per day.
Adult Feed most raptors once daily in the morning. Feed owls in the evening. Animals with poor appetite may have more interest in whole prey chopped into bite-size pieces or prey sliced open to expose the viscera.
  Owls, hawks, falcons: <0.5 kg; offer 1 mouse per day.
  Owls, hawks, falcons: 0.5–1.5 kg; offer 2-3 mice, ½—1 rat, 2 chicks, or ½ quail per day.
  Eagles: 1 large rat, 8 mice, or 1 medium sized fish (250-300 g) per day.
  Osprey: 1 medium sized fish (200-275 g) per day.
  Vultures: skin food prior to administration to prevent trichobezoars. Feed 5 mice, 1 rat, or 1 medium sized fish per day. Slice food open to expose viscera.
  The above recommendations are based on years of rehabilitation experience and may be used as a starting point. Energy requirements for raptors may also be determined by calculating the basal metabolic rate (BMR = k × BW0.75; k = 78, BW = kg) and the maintenance energy requirements (MER = Energy Requirements × BMR; energy requirements: starvation = 0.6, mild trauma = 1.1, severe trauma = 1.5-2, growth = 2.5, sepsis = 1.5, burns = 2). A typical mouse is 55-65 kcal.
  Frozen fish should be supplemented with vitamins such as VitaHawk (DB Scientific) or Sea Tabs (Pacific Research Laboratories) to correct for potentially low thiamine levels.
Critical Care
  See Figure 13-1 for raptor fluid resuscitation and refeeding algorithm.
  When tube feeding, divide total daily formula into 2 (preferred) to 4 feedings with maximum volume per feeding: 40 mL/kg or 5% of body weight. Administer formula with red rubber catheter into crop as last procedure before returning patient to cage to reduce risk of regurgitation. During feeding, monitor closely for regurgitation. If regurgitation occurs, stop immediately, clean oral cavity with cotton-tipped applicators, and reduce next feeding volume.
Indoor Housing
  House standing patients in a crate or solid-wall cage with newspaper on the bottom and a sturdy perch to stand upon; cover front door with towel and keep in quiet room; a protective tailguard should be placed on all raptors with tails long enough to bump cage sides or cage flooring to prevent feather damage that could affect flight and delay release. If housed for extended periods, a rotation of perches of variable texture should be provided to prevent pododermatitis (examples of perch coverings include Astroturf, hemp rope, and natural wood/bark). Nestlings and fledglings may need a perch and a doughnut-shaped nest formed from towels/sheets. It is normal for nestlings and fledglings to sleep in sternal recumbency. Adult recumbent patients should be supported in an upright position by rolling towels and creating a doughnut-shaped support surrounding patient body. Critical patients may be kept in incubator at 80-85°F (26.7-29.4°C) and given supplemental oxygen. All raptors should be transferred to experienced rehabilitators as soon as possible for continued treatment and flight conditioning prior to release.
Safe Handling and Restraint
  Appropriate protective gear includes leather gloves (garden gloves for small species and up to the elbows or higher for larger hawks and eagles) and protective eyewear. A leather welder’s jacket may be used for large raptors such as eagles. Raptors will use talons for primary defense but may also use their beak. Restrain feet first and head second. A body grab should be used if the bird has a known leg injury. A towel may be placed over body prior to restraint to reduce wing flapping. Vulture defense includes regurgitation. Keeping patient neck extended will reduce regurgitation efforts. Keep patient eyes covered with a hood or light cloth during handling to reduce patient stress.
Physical Examination Notes
  Always examine the fundic portion of the eye as ocular lesions are common findings in raptors with trauma, including chorioretinal tears and pecten hemorrhage. Clavicle and coracoid fractures palpable in the thoracic inlet often occur with impact injuries. Asymmetrical wing holding (wing droop) indicates musculoskeletal or neurological injury. Pododermatitis (bumblefoot) is common with extended periods on the ground or inappropriate perching and exercise regimes in captivity. Oral plaques may be caused by a number of conditions including trichomoniasis, Capillaria sp, Candida albicans, electric shock, physical trauma, mixed bacterial infections, aspergillosis, herpes virus, avian poxvirus, or hypovitaminosis.
Venipuncture Sites
  Jugular vein (right is larger), basilic vein in either wing, medial metatarsal vein (use caution when working near talons).
Fluid Administration
  Intraosseus catheter placement in distal ulnar condyle or proximal tibiotarsus (avoid pneumatic bones such as humerus and femur); IV catheter in medial metatarsal vein, basilic vein, jugular vein; SC in inguinal/prefemoral skin fold where the inner thigh meets the body is preferred; be sure to avoid entering the coelomic cavity and air sac system; give oral fluids only in patients that maintain an upright position and have a functional GI tract to avoid regurgitation and aspiration.
  Maintenance 60-100 mL/kg/day
  Hetastarch 10-15 mL/kg IV q8h
   
Release Tips
  Morning release is appropriate for most birds. Release owls in the evening. Release in a suitable habitat for the species. Migratory species may need to be kept over winter if not ready for release in the fall.

a Although this outline is intended to provide general guidelines for the care of injured wildlife, the veterinarian is strongly encouraged to transfer these animals to experienced rehabilitators as soon as possible and/or to contact rehabilitators if questions arise. In addition, any individual working with wildlife should check with state and federal officials on permit requirements.



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Aug 21, 2016 | Posted by in EXOTIC, WILD, ZOO | Comments Off on Wildlife

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