Problem	Owner education required
Fear-related aggression	• Social communication and signaling, classical conditioning
Canine housesoiling	• How dogs learn (reinforcing desirable), normal elimination and eating patterns, supervision and confinement training
Feline inappropriate toileting	• Normal elimination behavior, substrate preferences, reasons for avoidance, odor elimination
Feline spraying	• Role of neutering, social behavior and communication, influence of cat density/resources, pheromones
Unruly dog	• Normal greeting behavior, obedience training, halter devices, principles of learning – reward desirable
Canine destructive behavior	• Normal play, enrichment and exercise, providing alternative acceptable outlets for chewing, rewarding desirable, preventing undesirable/teaching avoidance, the concept of “guilt,” the role of anxiety
Feline play aggression	• Normal feline play, feline predatory behavior, feline social behavior, how to play with a cat properly, adding a second cat

Modification of the environment

Environmental modification involves managing various aspects of the pet’s environment in order to diminish the performance or intensity of the behavior. A number of variables can be controlled, including confinement areas, exposure to eliciting stimuli, access to people, access to other animals, access to targets of the behavior, and modification of targets (Table 7.2).

Table 7.2 Ways to modify the environment to encourage desirable and prevent undesirable behavior

Change	Example
Identify and remove the cause	• For urine marking, separate or remove cats that are unable to cohabitate, prevent sight or sound of outdoor stimuli if triggers
	• For inappropriate toileting, find more acceptable litter and substrate
	• Ignore the pet when exhibiting attention-soliciting behaviors
Reduce the opportunity to misbehave	• Provide a safe confinement area
	• Keep within eyesight with a leash
	• Place objects out of reach – dog- or cat-proof
	• Build a privacy fence to reduce territorial barking
	• Prevent access to stimuli or problem areas by using avoidance devices
	• Physically prevent or reduce access to stimuli using barriers, window covers, or with products to reduce exposure to visual or auditory stimuli (see products)
Provide an environment conducive to the pet’s needs	• Install a dog or cat door to manage housesoiling by providing continuous access to the outdoors
	• Provide stimulating and interactive toys to decrease destructive behavior
	• For feline housesoiling, move the litterbox to a more acceptable area or remove any deterrents
	• Provide scratching post with substrate and location that meets cat’s preferences as well as perching and climbing areas
	• More physical and social enrichment for the young, unruly dog
Change the behavioral function of an area	• Place food, toys, or bedding in areas where the owner does not want the pet to eliminate
Make the area or object aversive	• Motion-activated alarms or sprays to keep the pet off furniture and counters
Make the area or object aversive	• Aversive-tasting sprays to stop chewing

Modification of the pet’s behavior

Change the behavior with surgery

Castration decreases gonadal hormones which might decrease sexually dimorphic behaviors, including sexual arousal, masturbation, urine marking, mounting, and perhaps some forms of aggression.¹^–³ However, the results of neutering studies have been somewhat conflicting. For example, one recent study found no effect of neutering on intermale aggression, roaming, or mounting.⁴ Another study suggested that neutering does not appear to decrease the likelihood of aggression in male dogs with perhaps the exception of some cases of territorial and intermale aggression.⁵ In yet another study, the odds ratio of biting a member of the household was highest for neutered male dogs followed by neutered female dogs, intact male dogs, and intact females. Some studies also suggest that spayed females are more likely to display certain types of aggression when compared with intact females.⁶^–⁸ While the cause has not been determined, it may be due to a decrease in estrogen and oxytocin concentrations, both of which may have some antianxiety effects.⁹ Ovariohysterectomy of dogs and cats eliminates behaviors associated with estrus cycles and pseudocyesis in dogs and reduces risk of mammary cancer if before 2nd or 3rd heat cycle. In dogs, castration is useful in the prevention or treatment of prostatic disease, testicular cancer, perianal tumors, and perineal hernias (Table 7.3).

Table 7.3 Potential behavioral benefits of castration ¹^–³

Behavior	Effects of castration
Undesirable sexual behavior	• Reduced interest in females, roaming, mounting, and masturbation
	• Roaming in cats can be reduced in over 90% of cases; 70–80% of dogs may have a reduction in roaming; only about 40% cease
	• Mounting in dogs is reduced in 70–80% of cases but resolved in only 25%
Urine marking	• Castration reduces marking in about 70–80% of dogs but only about 40% are resolved. Urine marking is reduced in 90% of cats
Aggression	• Intermale aggression may be reduced in about 60% of dogs and 90% of cats
	• Aggression toward family dogs and family members may be reduced in about 30% of dogs
	• Aggression toward unfamiliar dogs and intruders may be reduced in 10–20% of dogs

¹ Hart BL. Effects of neutering and spaying on the behavior of dogs and cats: questions and answers about practical concerns. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1991;198:1204.

² Hart BL, Eckstein RA. The role of gonadal hormones in the occurrence of objectionable behaviours in dogs and cats. Appl Anim Behav Sci 1997;52:351.

³ Hopkins SG, Schubert TA, Hart BL. Castration of adult male dogs: effects on roaming, aggression, urine marking, and mounting. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1976;168:1108–1110.

Other surgical procedures that have been used for certain behavior problems include olfactory tractotomy for refractory spraying cases, dental disarming, declawing, and devocalization. Many of these procedures are only considered as a last-resort alternative to euthanasia, and in some countries are deemed to be inhumane or even illegal. Surgery or medical therapy might also be necessary when an underlying medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism, anal sacculitis, chronic otitis) is causing or contributing to the behavioral signs.

Modify the pet with behavioral modification techniques

Behavioral modification is the principal means of correcting or controlling undesirable behavior. Therefore it is critical for consultants to understand normal species-typical behavior and the basic principles of learning and motivation if they intend to perform behavioral counseling in practice. Learning and behavior modification are discussed in Chapter 4 and in more detail below.

The use of behavior products to modify behavior

There are a wide variety of products that can be useful in the prevention and management of undesirable behavior in pets. Products have been developed for control and training (head halters, body harnesses), positive reinforcement (clicker, Manner’s minder), environmental enrichment, deodorizing soiled areas, desensitization and counterconditioning (e.g., CDs and DVDs for noise desensitization). In addition, new tools have been designed that might play a role in reducing anxiety (calming music CDs, anxiety wrap, Thundershirt) or for reducing the stimuli that might cause anxiety (Thunder band, Mutt Muffs, calming cap, Storm Defender cape). These are described throughout the text and a list of some of the product manufacturers can be found in Appendix B. Although the focus of behavior therapy should be placed squarely on the training and reinforcement of what is desirable, pet owners also need strategies for prevention, interruption, and avoidance of undesirable behaviors. Therefore, a brief overview of these products is provided in Box 7.1.

Box 7.1

Products to manage undesirable behavior (client handout #21, printable version available online)

There are a wide variety of products that can be useful in correcting or managing undesirable behavior in pets. Devices that are activated by the owner can be used to interrupt a behavior so that the desirable response can be achieved or may serve as a punisher so that the pet is less likely to repeat the act in the future. However, behavior is likely to continue in the owner’s absence, especially if it is rewarding (e.g., garbage raiding), comforting (e.g., sleeping on the couch) or brings relief (e.g., elimination) since there are no unpleasant consequences associated with the behavior when the owner is not watching. Therefore remote punishment or avoidance devices (booby traps) might be more effective, so that the pet associates the punishment with the act, and not with the owner. Since pain, discomfort, and excessive fear compromise the pet’s welfare, the minimum level of intensity required to achieve the desired outcome should be used and they should immediately be stopped if they cause excessive fear. However, before any of these devices are considered as a means of deterring undesirable behavior, you must first focus on: (1) how to train and reinforce alternative desirable behaviors; (2) how to cease rewarding undesirable behaviors; and (3) how to prevent rather than punish. Since positive punishment causes a decrease in behavior by making the pet fearful of repeating the behavior, punishment should not be used to “correct” behaviors that are motivated by fear or anxiety. In addition, if any of these products or techniques: (1) are ineffective in interrupting or stopping the undesirable behavior after the first or second attempt; (2) cause undue fear or anxiety; or (3) lead to threats or aggression, they should be immediately discontinued.

Disruptive stimuli

The goal of a disruptive stimulus is to interrupt the undesirable response. This allows an opportunity for the performance of a desirable response which can then be reinforced.

Remote punishment

This can be used to deter undesirable behavior without causing fear of, or association with, the owner. For example, punishment can be administered from a distance by using a remote-activated spray collar (lemon, citronella, or air). Timing must be immediate and the aversive stimulus should be withdrawn as soon as the behavior ceases (negative reinforcement). Garbage and litter box raiding, urine marking, and coprophagia in dogs are examples of problems that might be corrected with a remote-activated device.

Pet-activated devices – avoidance

Environmental punishment or booby traps can be used to deter undesirable behavior or entry into restricted areas even in the owner’s absence. The goal is for the pet to learn that the area or the behavior itself is associated with unpleasant consequences. Motion-activated alarms or sprays or unpleasant surfaces such as sticky tape or upside-down carpet runners are often used for this purpose.

Disruptors and punishment devices

Owner-activated devices

1. Direct devices can be used to interrupt undesirable behaviors (e.g., a pet jumping up) so that desirable behaviors can be reinforced or as a means of reducing repetition of behaviors that might be damaging to the house or unsafe for the pet (e.g., garbage raiding, stealing). Some of the commercial devices available include audible, ultrasonic, or spray deterrents. You can also use a “shake” can full of pennies, pocket rape alarm, or air horn as audible deterrents or a water gun or can of compressed air.

2. Remote devices provide a way to stop an undesirable behavior while the owner remains out of sight. These include remote-controlled citronella or scentless spray collars to deter undesirable behavior, or a remote-control vibrating collar that might be used as a positive signal to train deaf dogs. Something thrown on the floor near the pet (e.g., shake can or bean bag) may also serve to interrupt the behavior. Other products include water rifles and remote-controlled switches that can be used to activate an alarm, hair dryer, water sprayer, or tape recording. By placing these devices in the area where the pet might misbehave (e.g., plant, garbage) and activating them with a remote switch, the pet might learn to avoid the area. To administer remote punishment at the right time, the owner will need to monitor from a distance while remaining out of sight; a web cam or pet monitor might be useful.

Pet-activated devices

1. Outdoor devices. Electronic containment systems can be used to keep dogs within selected boundaries, or away from selected areas. A transmitter wire is buried along the boundary, and a radio transmitter sends a signal that is received by the collar. As the pet approaches, there is first a warning tone, and then activation of a spray collar if the pet does not retreat out of range. Motion-activated alarms and sprays, ultrasonic deterrents, a motion-activated water sprinkler, and pet repellents can keep pets out of selected areas on the property (e.g., gardens) or stray animals off the property.

2. Indoor devices. Devices designed to keep pets away from areas (i.e., avoidance) include indoor electronic containment systems that activate a spray collar as the pet approaches as well as motion-activated sprays and alarms. Alarms and detectors designed for home security may also be effective. You might also find that a pet may avoid an area if you place down less appealing substrates (e.g., aluminum foil, plastic, or rubber mats) or uncomfortable substrates (e.g., upside-down vinyl carpet runners, double-sided tape) or spray the area with a pet repellent or chew deterrents such as hot sauces, menthol, oil of eucalyptus, cayenne pepper, or commercially available antichew sprays. Some pets, especially cats, may avoid areas with strong perfumes or citrus odors.

3. Dog and cat doors have been developed that will only open for the pet wearing the activation collar or “key.” In fact, some can be programmed to be activated by the pet’s microchip. Child safety locks, secure trash bins, barricades, and crates or dog pens can be used to prevent and avoid problems.

4. Bark deterrents: for a bark-activated device to be effective, it must immediately interrupt the barking, be sensitive enough to detect each undesirable vocalization, and specific enough that it is not activated by extraneous stimuli. Bark-activated, audible, and ultrasonic devices can be placed in areas where the pet might bark (window, front hall, cage). Bark-activated collars that deliver a spray of air or citronella can be worn by the dog at times it might bark. There are also ultrasonic and audible deterrent bark collars but these seldom appear to be effective. Bark-activated products should only be applied if they effectively stop the barking and the owner is present to reward the quiet behaviors that precede and follow barking. Vocalization that is due to anxiety (e.g., storm phobia, separation anxiety) should not be suppressed by a bark collar since, even if effective at reducing barking, it will likely increase, not decrease, the pet’s anxiety.

Shock and discomfort

Most pets quickly learn to avoid situations or locations that cause fear or discomfort. To this end some training devices use varying levels of discomfort or shock. These products fall into the categories of electronic avoidance devices, including outdoor wiring and transmitters that activate a “shock” collar, intended to keep pets within the boundaries of a property; indoor transmitters that activate a shock collar, intended to keep pets out of selected areas of the home; mats that produce a static electric type of stimulation that are designed to sit on counters, furniture, windowsills or around plants; and collars that emit shock when a dog barks. In addition there are remote-activated shock collars that have even greater potential for misuse and abuse since they are activated by humans and not the behavior itself. On a similar note, collars with prongs also act by causing discomfort and pain. Shock devices are considered inhumane and are illegal to use in many countries, but are still widely available in North America.

One argument for the use of these products is that when all other practical solutions have been exhausted, and less intense deterrents have been ineffective, these products offer an alternative that may quickly and effectively resolve problems by teaching the pet to avoid an area or cease a behavior. Therefore, their use might be limited to situations where safety is a factor (to people, other pets, or the pet itself), the problem might otherwise lead to relinquishment (e.g., a barking dog in a high-rise apartment), and to allow dogs the freedom to run free on a large unfenced property. However, in reality most of these problems can be prevented, managed, or improved without the need for undue pain or discomfort. In addition, since these products deter behaviors by causing fear and pain, they can condition new fear responses and further intensify underlying fear and anxiety, leading to emotional issues for the pet and the development of new behavior problems (e.g., defensive or redirected aggression or intense avoidance responses). At the other extreme, despite the level of discomfort, many pets will not be deterred and will continue to bark with a shock collar or run off the property with electronic fencing. Other concerns specific to electronic fencing are that it does not keep people or other animals off the dog’s property and that if the dog escapes the property it will get shocked if it tries to return. Therefore, since the use of any product that causes pain, discomfort, or fear compromises the pet’s welfare, their use cannot be condoned except to consider whether there is any justification for their use if they might spare a pet from relinquishment.

Where the products are legal, practitioners should advise clients of the potential harm these products might cause to the pet and its welfare, and provide alternative options that might effectively address the clients’ concerns. Under no circumstances, however, is there any need to resort to these products for dog training.

Modify the pet’s behavior with psychoactive drugs, pheromones, and alternative remedies

Although medications can be used for a wide variety of behavioral applications, very few have been labeled for the applications in which they are being used (see Chapter 8). Synthetic pheromones and other complementary therapeutics have been less rigorously tested but data are emerging on the possible efficacy of some of these products in the treatment of urine marking and scratching in cats, and as adjunctive treatment for anxiety disorders in dogs and cats (see Chapter 9).