Wailani Sung and Jeannine Berger In the United States, approximately 3.2 million cats are placed in animal shelters and approximately 860,000 cats are euthanized each year (ASPCA 2018). Factors that contribute to relinquishment include owners’ specific expectations about the cats’ role in the household, being intact, allowed outdoors, inappropriate elimination, lack of knowledge about cats, changes in lifestyle, allergies, being more work than expected, personal problems, new baby, and behavioral issues (New et al. 2000; Patronek et al. 1996; Salman et al. 1998; Scarlett et al. 1999). Cats with behavioral issues are in danger of being euthanized upon intake or having an increased length of stay in the shelter. The shelter is a stressful environment for cats due to numerous factors such as exposure to the smell of other people and animals, the noises produced in the shelter by staff and other pets, the unpredictable schedules, and lack of control on the cat’s part (Stella et al. 2013). Cats that are relinquished by their owners have higher Cat‐Stress‐Scores compared to cats classified as strays (Dybdall et al. 2007). This indicates that cats that are used to living in homes are more stressed by the change in their environment. The high level of stress affects the cat’s overall welfare. Some stressed cats will hide, whereas some cats will exhibit aggressive behavior (Dybdall et al. 2007). Other signs of stress in shelter cats include decreases in appetite, weight loss, use of litterbox, movement, play, and interactions with people (Tanaka et al. 2012). Stressed cats experience elevated levels of cortisol, which is immunosuppressive. Therefore, stressed cats are more likely to develop medical problems such as feline upper respiratory disease (Dybdall et al. 2007; Tanaka et al. 2012) and stay in the shelter longer. Extended stays in the shelter have a negative effect not only on the cat’s physical health but also on their mental well‐being. The longer the cat stays in the shelter, the more likely they will engage in stress‐induced maladaptive behaviors and be less active (Gouveia et al. 2011). Environmental enrichment and behavior modification exercises are used by many animal shelters to decrease stress and improve the welfare of cats in the shelter environment. It is crucial that shelters employ all resources to address and reduce stress in cats. Providing hide boxes and elevated perches allows cats to have choices in their environment, which can reduce their level of stress (Vinke et al. 2014). Cats that experience lower levels of stress can better adjust to the shelter environment. They hide less and are more interactive with staff and potential adopters. Potential adopters are more interested in cats that approach the front of the cage, play with toys, and are more interactive with people (Weiss et al. 2012). The length of stay and stress in cats can be reduced by offering environmental enrichment and interactions with people, which can increase the cats’ overall level of comfort in the shelter environment (Gourkow and Fraser 2006; Grant and Warrior 2019). Interactions with staff and volunteers can come in various forms, such as a person simply spending time in the enclosure with the cats or offering treats, food puzzle toys, or other interactive toys and playing with or petting them. For cats that continue to be withdrawn and exhibit signs of fear, anxiety, and stress or inappropriate behavior such as aggression toward the staff, a training and/or behavior modification protocol needs to be implemented. Training involves teaching the cat to respond to verbal or visual cues to exhibit specific behaviors. Behavior modification involves changing a cat’s emotional response to certain triggers and reinforcing alternate behaviors. Through behavior modification exercises, the cat’s tolerance of certain triggers is increased, positive associations are created, and more acceptable responses are reinforced. This method reduces stress, provides mental enrichment, and facilitates the adoption of the cats. In this chapter, training techniques and behavior modification exercises to address the more commonly encountered behavior problems cats exhibit in the shelter environment will be reviewed. Training has been shown to improve welfare by reducing fear associated with human interactions and distress during husbandry procedures (Westlund 2014). Training is used to teach animals new behaviors and tasks. Specifically, the use of reward‐based training is important because it does not increase fear and anxiety such as with training techniques that rely on aversive incentives. Training is often overlooked in cats due to the misconception that cats can’t be trained. In addition, shelter cats often miss out on training opportunities due to the lack of awareness by staff of its benefit, the misconception that a huge time investment is needed, and a lack of skills by staff members or volunteers. Cats with difficulty coping with shelter life can especially benefit from positive reinforcement training. Training shelter dogs has become a more popular concept that can aid in facilitating dog adoptions (Protopopova and Wynne 2015). Dogs are traditionally the companion animal that has received more training focus by their owners and researchers compared to cats. Although cats, like any animal, can be taught novel behaviors and tasks, there is a dearth of studies on training cats compared to dogs. Nonetheless, we can use and adapt the strategies used to train dogs to our domestic cats. In 1898, Thorndike placed hungry cats in puzzle boxes and studied their attempts to escape the box to get food placed outside the box (Chance 1999). The cats in puzzle boxes had to figure out through trial and error how to escape the box by manipulating a device, whether it was pushing a lever or pulling a wire to escape. These were some of the early studies that demonstrated that cats can learn through association. The more often the cat was placed in the puzzle box, the quicker the cat learned to escape. This indicated the rate of learning in the cat. In the modern age, initially feline training was more focused on large exotic cats kept in captivity and was considered a form of enrichment. As stated by Melfi (2013), training was seen as a part of their enrichment program if the training fulfilled the following criteria for captive animals: The same principles used on exotic animals can be used to address how captive domestic cat populations are treated in the shelter. Training can have a huge positive impact on any cat’s life but is especially important in a shelter cat’s life. Cats in shelters undergo a similar experience as some of their exotic feline counterparts; life in captivity changes their natural or normal environment and gives them little or no control over it. To fulfill the criteria listed by Melfi, training not only enriches the shelter cat’s life but also provides opportunities for positive human interactions. These positive experiences may encourage cats to be more active in their enclosure, which can be a sign of reduced stress (Tanaka et al. 2012). These cats may also be more interactive with people, spend more time in front of the cage, and are more willing to approach, which increases their chances of being adopted (Weiss et al. 2012). Mellen and Shepherdson (1997) reported that positive reinforcement training for 15–30 minutes per day was required to teach a Siberian tiger to present specific body parts for examination. As a result of training the tiger showed more interest in his environment and attention to the keeper. The trainers determined the duration of the training sessions based on the tiger’s decline in frequency of response to stimulus or if they had achieved the training goal for that session (Hare and Sevenich 1999). Operant training has been used for many decades in the husbandry of zoo animals but not with domestic cats. Recent studies used training to reduce stress in cats for veterinary procedures. Acute stress responses can falsely elevate blood glucose level (Rand et al. 2002) and produce blood abnormalities, such as lymphocytosis, neutrophilia, and hypokalemia (Gooding et al. 2012; Lockhart et al. 2013). Lockhart et al. (2013) used operant conditioning along with systematic desensitization in their cat population. Once a week beginning at three weeks of age, they trained kittens to remain in a technician’s lap through the various steps of positioning and blood collection until the veterinary technicians were successful in a jugular blood collection. Then training was reduced to once a month and then once a quarter when they reached one year of age. The trained cats had significantly lower cortisol levels and heart rate. The trained cats also exhibited fewer escape attempts compared to the untrained cats. Another study addressed the issue many owners face before their cats even arrive at the veterinary clinic. Many cat owners struggle with placing their cats into a carrier, preventing them from bringing the cats to regular veterinary visits. The process is stressful for both cats and owners. The cat arrives at the veterinary clinic with an elevated level of stress that often further escalates during the physical examination, preventing the veterinarian from performing a proper physical exam. Pratsch et al. (2018) used positive reinforcement training on 22 cats to train them to voluntarily enter a carrier and endure a car ride. The training protocol was set up for seven phases and six repetitions were needed to move to the next phase. The cats averaged two to six training sessions for completing one phase and were limited to 28 sessions over a period of six weeks. Food was used as the primary reinforcer. Cats that were successfully trained had a significant reduction in their Cat‐Stress‐Score during the car ride. They also had significant changes in frequency of lip licking and changes in body postures such as sitting. In addition, they were more interested in seeking food than controls. The carrier trained cats also experienced a shorter veterinary examination due to less resistance to handling. Ear temperature recordings also indicated that the trained cats experienced lower stress. This study showed that training can be used to decrease stress in cats trained to enter carriers on their own. More recently, researchers focused specifically on training shelter cats. Kogan et al. (2017) used clicker training to teach 100 shelter cats four novel behaviors: touch a target, sit, spin, and give a high five. Each cat received 15 five‐minute clicker training sessions over two weeks. Success was achieved when the cat was able to perform the four behaviors five times in a row within two seconds after the cue was presented. Both verbal and visual cues were used. There was a significant difference between cats that were more food motivated. These cats were more successful in learning target and high five. The researchers also found that some cats were not food motivated but responded to petting. This group of cats also learned to target with petting as the reinforcer. Willson et al. (2017) compared the efficacy of three positive reinforcement training methods to train cats to perform a novel task, touch a target. The positive reinforcement methods used were a primary reinforcer (food only), a bridging stimulus (beep + food), and a secondary reinforcer (beep only). In the conditioning phase, the beep sound was associated with the delivery of food and consisted of two sessions on consecutive days with 20 beep‐food pairings per session. The primary reinforcer group received rewards from the training device without the beep sound. The cats were trained to touch a red target with their nose. The task was considered successful when the cat’s nose touched the red target within five seconds after the trial started for three consecutive presentations. Cats that succeeded in learning within the minimum time and trial requirements took a median of four trials and three seconds to achieve the assessment criteria. The cats in the primary reinforcer group acquired the task quicker than the cats in the bridging stimulus group. Interestingly, the secondary reinforcer group did not acquire the task at all. Furthermore, the authors noted that the treatment condition of using the secondary reinforcer alone was associated with aggression. Grant and Warrior (2019) sought to use clicker training to increase exploratory behavior in shelter cats as a way of improving the cats’ welfare. They engaged the cats in 10‐minute sessions of clicker training, three times a week for two weeks. Cats were reinforced for moving toward the front of their enclosure when their names were called. After the training was completed, the researchers noted that the cats spent significantly more time in exploratory behavior and less time being inactive. They also spent more time in the front of their enclosure. These studies clearly prove that cat can be trained and perform behaviors that increases their activity in their enclosure. The primary reinforcer method also known as response reward method, or the bridging stimulus method via clicker training, are both effective in training shelter cats. Training itself provides the cats with an outlet to cope with shelter stress. In the authors’ opinions, when working with animals in the shelter, positive reinforcement is the ideal method to use. Participation in training is voluntary. Before starting any training sessions, the cat needs to be situated in a quiet environment, relaxed, and interested in food. Interest in food is not crucial but a motivator for the cat needs to be determined. Offer a wide variety of food and treats to determine the cat’s preference. It is important to determine the cat’s preferred food because research indicates that dogs work harder for their preferred food (Riemer et al. 2018). The preferred food item will then be used as the reward during training. To ensure the cat is hungry, training sessions should occur before mealtimes, or a smaller meal is offered earlier in the day. Each session should be short; about one to five minutes at most. Use a small amount of food as a reward. If the cat is not interested in food rewards, then find another rewarding interaction, such as play, pets, brushing, or verbal praise. In the beginning, offer treats every single time the cat performs the desired behavior. Box 18.1 describes helpful tools for training shelter cats. While the basic reward‐based technique can be used to train cats, clicker training can also be a helpful technique to train a shelter cat. This is another technique that helps improve the human‐animal bond and teaches the cat to perform desired behaviors. The clicker is an “event marker.” It marks the cat’s behavior, the exact moment the cat performs that particular behavior, so timing is important. Some researchers have questioned the need for clicker training compared to the traditional reward‐based method of training. The foundation of clicker training is based on the principles used in the laboratory studies of animal learning where a signal is given prior to delivery of a reward. The signal becomes the predictor that the reward will soon arrive. The animal engaged in a particular behavior when the signal occurred was reinforced for that specific behavior. Clicker training has been shown to be successful in teaching animals new behavior (Feng et al. 2018; Kogan et al. 2017). Clicker training gained in popularity with positive reinforcement trainers because some animals have difficulty learning when there is any delay in reinforcement (Feng et al. 2017). For exotic animals in enclosures or working with fearful or aggressive animals where it is safer for staff members to keep a distance, there will be a delay in the delivery of the reinforcer. The “click” helps bridge the delay until the reinforcer is delivered (Feng et al. 2018). Smith and Davis (2008) found that the clicker trained dogs were more resistant to extinction. There is merit in using clicker training for cats with behavioral disorders where the staff may not be able to be close enough to deliver a reward immediately after the appropriate behavior, similar to having to toss treats through a kennel door with dogs. Clicker training is also a training philosophy in which there is no coercion involved with training, only positive reinforcement (Feng et al. 2017). See Chapter 3 for more in‐depth discussion regarding training techniques and learning. If the staff member elects to use clicker training, then the trainer must prime the clicker, which means associating the sound of the clicker with an immediate high‐value reward. Use 3 to 15 repetitions until the cat associates the sound of the clicker with a reward. Depending upon the interest of each individual cat, the number of possible repetitions may vary. The cat should look at the trainer expectantly after he hears the click. This indicates that the cat has formed an expectation that he will receive a reward. Once that association is made the cat is ready to be trained new behaviors. If the sound of the clicker is too loud and startling for the cat, a quieter clicker can be used or a softer clicking noise can be made with the tongue. The click of a pen, or a verbal marker such as the word “yes” can provide the same effect. The same principles can be applied using a verbal marker in place of a clicker. Appendix 18.A describes sample clicker training protocols useful for shelter cats. Although the number of movements within the shelter should be minimized, there will always be a need to move the cat. If a cat is comfortable in a crate, it will reduce the stress of placing the cat in the carrier and transporting them to a new enclosure, to seek medical care, or to the new home. It is a service to the potential adopters if the cat can be easily transported. This also improves the welfare of the cat because many owners cannot get the cat in the carrier in a low‐stress manner in order to seek veterinary care. There are different ways to train a cat to go into a carrier. The easiest way is to lure the behavior by placing food next to the carrier and then, over subsequent days, placing the food farther into the carrier. Use a clicker to capture the behavior when the cat goes in on his own or is lured in with the food or a target. Use whichever techniques are the easiest for the staff to implement or to which the cat responds best. Appendix 18.B describes sample crate training protocols. Behavior modification is the process by which an animal’s current behavioral response to a stimulus is changed. As stated earlier in the chapter, training involves teaching the shelter cat to respond to specific verbal or visual cues to exhibit specific behaviors. Behavior modification involves identifying the triggers that can be changed through management, such as avoiding exposure, and through targeted exercises to change established emotional and behavioral responses (Overall 2013). Both classical and operant conditioning principles can be used. Behavior modification involves changing a shelter cat’s emotional response to certain triggers and reinforcing alternate behaviors—the alternate behavior being the more desirable behaviors that people want to see. For example, instead of vocalizing, hiding, chasing or exhibiting aggressive behavior toward a particular stimulus, through behavior modification exercises, the cat’s tolerance of certain triggers can be increased, positive associations can be created, and more acceptable responses are reinforced. Therefore, the cat’s positive emotional state can be preserved. The cat is more accepting of interactions with people, which increases their chance of being adopted and reduces their overall level of stress. Behavior modification can be successfully implemented in cats to treat a variety of behavior problems, ranging from fear‐based disorders to aggressive behavior within and between species and elimination disorders (Overall 2013). These findings are not only based on anecdotal or case reports from animal and veterinary behaviorists but also based on results from research studies. Gooding et al. (2012) acclimated cats to restriction in a respiratory chamber over an 11‐week process. The cats were gradually exposed to the respiratory chamber and study room over several weeks. Then the cats were confined in the respiratory chamber toward the end of the protocol. Positive reinforcement was offered during the cats’ stay in the study room and after confinement via petting, talking, or playing with the cats. The results of the study indicated that the Cat‐Stress‐Scores declined over the duration of the study and exposure to each condition. The experimental cats had lower stress scores compared to naïve cats. Gruen et al. (2013) showed that behavior modification can be used to condition cats to being handled and transported in a carrier. In this study, the training sessions lasted 15–20 minutes per room and occurred once daily on consecutive weekdays. There were three phases in the protocol, once the cat reached the goal for one phase, the cat was moved to the next phase. Phase one involved placing treats in the enclosure and subsequently closer toward the door of the enclosure to condition the cats to move toward the front. Cats took an average of two sessions before moving to phase two. Phase two involved gentle petting and handling of the cat when the cat approached the front of the enclosure to eat the treats. Phase three involved introduction of the carrier and reinforcing the cat for entering the carrier. These are all steps involved in desensitization in which cats are slowly introduced to new stimuli at such a rate that they remain below threshold for anxiety and fear. These studies are a few examples in which a step‐by‐step protocol that exposes triggers or novel conditions to cats under their threshold can be used to modify cats’ behaviors. A generic behavior modification protocol adheres to a few essential principles. The first and most important step is appropriate management, including safety and avoidance. In this step, any of the situations that caused the problem are avoided so as not to make it worse. Safety is critical for the shelter cat, staff, and volunteers. When promoting safety, stress reduction for the shelter cat is an important factor to focus on too (Stella et al. 2014). For example, if a cat is afraid of noise, then the cat should be placed in the quietest area of the shelter. In certain shelter settings, this could be a very challenging part of the program. Often, creative thinking is needed for this critical step in order for the behavior modification protocol to achieve maximum success. It needs to be emphasized that stress reduction and elimination of any such trigger is crucial to providing the cat with the best welfare possible (Moberg 2000). Maintaining a consistent daily schedule of when certain activities and exposure to people occur, along with having the same staff and volunteers interact with the cats or limiting exposure to strangers helps reduce stress. Not following this step can impair the welfare of shelter cats and often leads to the development of behavior issues. If the animal does not adapt or habituate to the shelter environment in a few hours or days, and this step cannot be accomplished by successfully managing the environment, then all Five Freedoms may be negatively impacted. The Five Freedoms are all interconnected and, in conjunction with each other, lead to the highest level of well‐being for animals in our care (Berger and Ho 2017). Therefore, if shelter staff can perform nothing but the management part of the behavior modification protocol, they have already done a great deal to provide the Five Freedoms to the cats. See Chapter 19 for more information about the Five Freedoms and other welfare assessment paradigms. Appropriate management sets the foundation of the behavior modification program and sets the trainer and cat up for success. Management often includes safety measures, which are of utmost importance for shelter animals, staff, and volunteers alike. It is very important when working with fearful or aggressive cats to avoid any triggers that will cause or escalate fear, anxiety, and aggression. This is achieved by keeping any external stressors such as noise, movement, multiple new people, aversive odors and tools to a minimum. If possible, limit the number of handlers to selected, skilled shelter staff and volunteers. Watch closely for fearful body postures and NEVER directly handle an aggressively aroused cat. Appropriate management includes giving all shelter cats a hiding spot. Cats behaving aggressively should be left alone for a period of time to give them an opportunity to calm down when aroused (Foreman‐Worsley and Farnworth 2019). Intake exams, cleaning the cage, and volunteer visits may have to be delayed. Intake exams can be done with sedation to provide the best care. Bites that result in injuries need to be avoided as they can cause an extended shelter stay. A few hours or days of familiarization can help a cat be less stressed and more acclimated (Moore and Bain 2013). As a result, the cat may be less fearful and easier to handle. If a fearful and/or aggressive cat needs to be moved to a different or quieter location, place a crate as the only hiding place in the enclosure and come back a few hours later. The cat might be in the crate and ready for movement without undue stress to all involved. This is the interactive part of a generic behavior modification protocol and includes changing a cat’s fear or aggression to a more positive behavior and emotion (Landsberg et al. 2012). To achieve this, we commonly use food, petting, or play. This process is also called desensitization and counter‐conditioning. For more information on this process, see Chapter 3 on how animals learn. In addition, personnel may teach the cat some interactive behaviors such as “look” or target touch. These behaviors help strengthen and reinforce the human‐animal bond. It also provides a positive mental outlet for the cat. The performance of alternative behaviors helps alleviates stress (Moberg 2000). The cat also forms a positive conditioned emotional response to the cue and behavior, which can aid in the process of relaxation (Mazur 2013). Behavior modification starts with a plan and determining what is rewarding to the cat. The authors typically recommend finding a high‐value, palatable diet or treat to use as a primary reinforcer. Tasty flavors leave long‐lasting, strong, and positive emotional memories that motivate the cat to perform (Riemer et al. 2018). Consider the use of pouch treats, baby food, spray cheese, or any yummy, canned option. It is critical that the cat eats the food. It is helpful to determine the cat’s food preference prior to initiating behavior modification. Individual cats have different food preferences (Bradshaw et al. 2000). This can be done by offering a variety of diet or treats (cafeteria style) in the enclosure and observing which food the cat prefers (see Figure 18.1). Once a shelter cat eats from the hand, the progress of behavior modification is usually fast and easy. Food is obviously important for optimal success; however, some cats may be more motivated by certain toys or play. Even a gentle touch with a pom‐pom may be rewarding for some cats. The authors recommend starting with food first and then proceeding to toys should food fail. Verbal praise in a soft, soothing voice should always be used when giving attention to cats. We recommend short (2‐ to 15‐minute) sessions two to three times per day (which may also serve to meet enrichment needs) and to track visits and behavior with an exposure log. Appendix 18.C contains a sample behavior log. Ensuring cats are calm and relaxed for behavioral modification will help increase the chance of success. Animals exposed to high levels of stress have difficulty learning (Seligman 1972). A more relaxed cat will learn faster and retain the information better. In some cases, the first step is to make the cat more comfortable in his enclosure. This can be achieved through enriching the housing environment by offering multiple hiding places, such as perches of various heights. Because an animal eating, and even liking, their food is relied upon, it may also be helpful to place the food and water sources very close to the hiding places at first should the cat be too shy to come toward the food. Figure 18.1 Treat selection—offer various treats to determine preference. It is important that no aggression is displayed during the process of desensitization and counter‐conditioning. Should any aggression occur, do NOT use any form of correction as this can only worsen the aggression and increase the risk of injuries. It is critical to avoid the use of physical punishment as these techniques cause pain, fear, increased anxiety, stress, and potentially aggression (Landsberg et al. 2012; Herron et al. 2009). Once triggered to aggression, the cat becomes sensitized by more interaction or handling (Beaver 2004). In these cases, it is best to leave the cat alone and allow him some time to calm down before the next attempt to work with the cat. A key element in making this part of the behavior modification protocol successful is to proceed in small incremental steps, keeping the cat comfortable at all times (Mazur 2013). That is the very definition of desensitization. It is critical to stay under a cat’s threshold, which is the point where a cat escalates their behavior and starts displaying the undesired body language or behaviors. This may mean only a few seconds of interaction per visit are attempted. Whatever it takes to keep the cat relaxed and engaged is important. Simply teaching one small part of a new behavior or touching the cat for one or two strokes to avoid reaching the point where the cat displays any undesired behaviors, including signs of fear or aggression, may still be beneficial. An important part of a behavior modification protocol is to set a goal and define success for the cat in question. Therefore, it is important to track the sessions, as well as any changes in behavior, in the problem‐oriented veterinary behavior record (POVBR); see Box 18.2. To ensure the best process possible, regularly revisiting the predetermined goals, assessing the progress, and adjusting the plan as needed are critical. In the beginning of a new behavior modification plan, daily assessments of progress should be performed, but this will depend on the frequency of sessions. At least once a week, the behavior modification team should meet to assess and discuss any progress or lack thereof and agree on the next steps in the plan. The behavior modification team can include shelter staff (including behavior team personnel), volunteers, local trainers and anyone else with a vested interest in the shelter cats. If progress with the behavior modification plan is not apparent within three to four sessions, consider the following points: Each condition and each individual cat needs a tailored plan to achieve the behavior modification protocol goals. In Section 18.4, the behavior modification protocols designed by the San Francisco SPCA Veterinary Behavior Specialty team, and implemented by shelter staff and volunteers for the most common conditions found in shelter cats as, are outlined. If the behavioral condition of the cat does not improve despite a solid behavior modification plan, or learning cannot be accomplished, then check if the management is appropriate or can be improved upon, the reward is appropriate, and the timing is accurate. If the animal displays any signs of fear, anxiety, or stress, the use of psychotropic medications may help to alleviate fear and anxiety and improve learning. See Chapter 22 for more information on behavioral pharmacology. The goals for treating a fearful or anxious cat are to reduce their response to stressors and help them habituate to the shelter environment. If specific triggers are identified, then desensitization and counter‐conditioning exercises can be implemented to increase the cat’s tolerance of those triggers and reinforce alternate responses. Cats are predators to smaller prey. However, they are also prey to larger predators. Therefore, it is important for cats to have a place to hide as this is part of their antipredator strategy when they are threatened. Fearful cats typically stare with dilated pupils or avert their gaze, hold their ears back or sideways, and lower their body into a crouching position. These cats exhibit heightened vigilance and reactivity to stimuli and may display extreme avoidance, withdrawal, or even aggression (Overall 2013). Most fearful cats will use physical attack as a last resort because they are defensive. Fear behaviors are triggered by the “flight or fight” nervous system. These innate responses are within the normal spectrum of cat behavior; however, the severity of the behavior displayed is mostly determined by early positive handling or lack thereof (Collard 1967; McCune 1995
18
Training and Behavior Modification for Shelter Cats
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Training Shelter Cats
18.2.1 Clicker Training
18.2.2 Crate Training
18.3 Generic Behavior Modification Protocol for Shelter Cats
18.3.1 Step 1: Management
18.3.2 Step 2: Behavior Modification
18.4 Behavior Modification Protocols for Common Conditions
18.4.1 The Fearful or Anxious Cat
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