Chapter 8 Snakes
Snakes are popular reptile pets, and there has been a resurgence in their popularity with the breeding of a variety of colour morphs. A huge number of species are available in the pet-trade, but the commonly kept species are listed in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Commonly kept species of snake: Key facts
Species | Notes | Common disorders |
---|---|---|
The royal python (Python regius) | This is a small python, growing to 90–120 cm. It has a not undeserved reputation for prolonged fasting, probably as a result of poor husbandry and endogenous cycles, although this is less pronounced with the modern captive-bred individuals and colour morphs | Dermatitis, dysecdysis and pneumonia. Anorexia, especially in wild caught or captive farmed individuals |
The Burmese python (Python morulus bivittatus) | This python is a potentially very large snake; adults can reach up to 5–7 m long with a large muscular cross-section. Adults are usually reasonably behaved but hatchlings and youngsters can be aggressive | Dysecdysis, burns, pneumonia, inclusion body disease (IBD) |
Boa constrictor (Constrictor constrictor) | A large snake up to 1.8–3.0 m long. Usually handleable but some individuals can be aggressive. Several colour morphs available and there is some selective breeding to reduce size using naturally occurring dwarf island subspecies | Snake mites, dysecdysis, inclusion body disease (IBD) |
Corn snake (Elaphe guttata guttata) | Moderate-sized rodent-eating snakes that make excellent introductions to snake-keeping. This is probably the nearest there is to a domestic snake; it is available in a very wide range of colour morphs, grows to a manageable size (around 1.0 m) and readily takes frozen-defrosted prey | Dysecdysis, cryptosporidium |
King snakes (Lampropeltis spp) | King snakes are natural predators of snakes and other reptiles and so are usually kept individually | Dysecdysis, obesity |
Garter snakes (Thamnophis spp) | Small to medium-sized snakes. Can be nervous on handling. Many of these are earthworm, fish and amphibian predators, although they can be readily converted on to mammalian prey | Septicaemia, thiamine deficiency |
Consultation and handling
Nursing care
Provide an appropriate environment, including provision of:
1 Optimal temperature (basking lights, heat mats, etc., to allow thermoregulation). Use of max–min thermometers will assist in monitoring temperature ranges incumbent reptiles are exposed to
2 Full-spectrum lighting appears to be relatively unimportant for snakes with some exceptions, e.g. rough green snake (Opheodrys aestivus)
5 Easily cleaned accommodation; use paper substrate and disposable/sterilizable hides and other vivarium furniture (Fig. 8.3)
Fluid therapy
See ‘Fluid Therapy’, in Lizards.
Skin disorders
Normal ecdysis in snakes
2 The stratum germinativum undergoes intense proliferation to form a new stratum corneum, but there is no outward visible change in the snake.
3 The new stratum corneum begins to differentiate and keratinize. At this point there is a slight dulling of the skin of the snake, and the spectacle may appear slightly cloudy.
4 A new layer – the stratum intermedium – is now apparent. This lies between the inner and outer layers of strata cornea. The epidermis is thickest now and so the snake’s colours are at their dullest; the spectacle is cloudy.
5 The stratum intermedium is dissolved away by lymph carrying enzymes – this leaves a cleavage plane between the two strata cornea. The snake’s colours will be seen to brighten and the spectacle will clear.
Differential diagnoses of skin disorders
See also Skin Disorders, in Lizards
Erosions and ulceration
• Blisters and sores, especially on the ventral scales (ventral dermal necrosis, vesicular dermatitis, blister disease). Typically bacterial – Pseudomonas spp, Aeromonas spp, Proteus spp
Nodules and non-healing wounds
• Dermatophytosis, include Penicillium spp, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Candida albicans, Aspergillus spp, Fusarium spp.
• Pentastomids (esp. Armillifer armillifer, Porocephalus spp, Kiricephalus spp) (see also Respiratory Tract Disorders)
Findings on clinical examination
• Dysecdysis: One or more patches of retained skin. In some areas the skin will appear dull and thickened where several layers of skin have built up over successive dysecdysis episodes. In some cases rings of unshed skin may form bands around the tip the tail. As these dry they constrict, acting as tourniquets and compromising blood flow to the extremity. The spectacles may be retained (see Ophthalmic Disorders)
• Small mites found on snakes; tend to accumulate under the scales, the postorbital area, labial pits and any skinfolds around the mouth or cloaca. Snake may spend much of time submerged in water bowl (snake mites)
Treatment/specific therapy
• Dysecdysis
• Moisten the affected areas in order to loosen the retained skin from the underlying epidermis. If the skin feels firmly attached, leave it and try again after further moistening
• Placing the snake in a warm, damp towel, pillow case or duvet cover (for large snakes) provides rehydration, lubrication and soft, slightly abrasive surfaces against which to rub. Enforced bathing in warm water may also help but beware the possibility of drowning
• Ventral dermal necrosis
• Usually associated with too damp an environment – in semi-aquatic species, it can be initiated by the dermal penetration of hookworm larvae. If left untreated it may progress to a septicaemia
• Treatment is with topical povidone-iodine plus appropriate systemic antibiosis – successful antibiotics include enrofloxacin, amikacin or even gentamicin
• Adhesive tape entanglement
• The outer epithelial layers may be removed and owners may tear the skin in their efforts to remove the tape
• Use a solvent (such as halothane or isoflurane) to gradually remove the adhesive; an anaesthetic may be required especially if tape is adhered to the spectacle (see Ophthalmic Disorders)
• Repair any skin lesions; small lesions can be sealed with tissue glue, larger may require suturing
• Burns
• Debride necrotic material (may require anaesthetic)and treat with a topical amorphous hydrogel dressings, e.g. IntraSite Gel (Smith and Nephew Healthcare Ltd., and/or Povidine-iodine
• If the burns are extensive then fluid therapy should be instigated (see Gastrointestinal Tract Disorders)
• Scaring will eventually result which may lead to localized areas of dysecdysis; if scarring is extensive then can lead to problems
• Snake mites
• Parthenogenetic so numbers can rapidly build up in vivaria; treatment must include the thorough cleansing of all affected vivaria. What cannot be sterilized with a mild bleach solution (5 mL per gallon) must be disposed
• Application of topical fipronil spray once weekly for at least 4 weeks. This is best first applied to a cloth and rubbed over the entire surface of the snake. Fipronil can also be used to treat the environment
• Injection of ivermectin at 200 μg/kg s.c. (Note: toxic to indigo snakes and chelonia) every 2 weeks will kill those that feed on the snake.
• Commercial imidacloprid (100 g/L) plus moxidectin (25 g/L) (Advocate Dog, Bayer) applied at double (32 mg/kg imidacloprid + 8.0 mg/kg moxidectin) to 10-fold dosages (160 mg/kg imidacloprid + 40 mg/kg moxidectin) according to thickness of skin (care with garter snakes Thamnophis spp.) (Mehlhorn et al 2005b)
Respiratory tract disorders
Findings on clinical examination
• Discharge around the glottis or inside the proximal trachea. Must differentiate from oesophageal discharge (gastritis/enteritis) or secondary to stomatitis. Some conditions may occur concurrently
• Snakes have limited ability to cough and the trachea is long so obstructions due to mucus can be serious and may require flushing
Investigations
10 CT scan
a Pees et al (2007) offer the measurements in Table 8.2 for CT examinations of the lungs of healthy Indian pythons (Python morulus) and pythons with respiratory tract disease
Table 8.2 Measurements for CT examinations of the lungs of healthy Indian pythons (Python molurus) and pythons with respiratory tract disease

Treatment/specific therapy
• Lungworm
• Fenbendazole at 50–100 mg/kg. Repeat every 2 weeks if necessary. Note that fenbendazole is metabolized to oxfendazole by the liver
• Ivermectin at 0.2 mg s.c. or p.o. repeated every 2 weeks for 3 treatments (toxic to indigo snakes)
Gastrointestinal tract disorders
Findings on clinical examination
• Inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal membranes; may progress to ulcerative lesions of the palatine area, the trachea and the tongue sheath. A diphtheritic membrane may be present (stomatitis)
• Occasionally infection may track up the lachrymal duct resulting in a subspectacular abscess over one or both corneas (stomatitis) (see Ophthalmic Disorders)
Treatment/specific therapy
• Stomatitis
• Snakes may not feed while suffering from stomatitis, so may require fluid support such as Hartman’s at 15–25 mL/kg; nutritional support should be given by stomach tube during this time
• The stomach tube should be lubricated and coated with appropriate antibiotic to try to prevent iatrogenic spread of infection to the oesophagus and further
• Fractured jaw
• Pathologically weakened bone, or mandibles of small snakes, may be unable to support orthopaedic techniques; in some cases taping the jaw closed with strong adhesive plaster (taking care to leave the nares open) accompanied by placement of an oesophagostomy tube may allow healing to occur (Fig. 8.6)
