Description of the Sport

For as long as horses have been domesticated and ridden, they have been raced. The oldest record of racing in Britain shows that the Romans used to race their horses in Chester. Subsequently, little is known about any organized horse racing during the Middle Ages, but by about 1150 racing had become established at Smithfield, a horse market, where horses were tried and sometimes raced before sale. By the early part of the sixteenth century, racing had returned to Chester, where the prize for the winner in 1511 was a silver bell.

All of these races were on turf with no obstacles to negotiate. At about the same time that horses were competing for the Chester bell, fox hunting (rather than hunting deer or wild boar) started to become established and rapidly increased in popularity. One reason for this may have been the changing agricultural landscape as more and more land was enclosed, providing natural obstacles for those following the hunt to jump. Inevitably, rivalry developed among those who regularly followed fox hunts across country regarding who had the fastest horse, and a new sport was born, known as steeplechasing. The origin of the name is simple. Because no courses were defined over which the races could take place, the participants had to race from one church to another, using the high church steeple toward which they were heading as a landmark. The riders could choose their own route and had to jump a variety of fences such as hedges, banks, walls, timber fences, and brooks during the course of the race. The first steeplechase of this type was held in Buttevant in Ireland in 1752, when two neighbors raced between Buttevant church and the St Leger church, a distance of miles (7.2 km).

Eventually this new sport was formalized, with specially constructed courses that allowed more participants to take part and more spectators to watch. The first such organized race meeting in Britain was held at St Albans in 1830. The Grand National was first staged in 1839, the National Hunt Steeplechase followed at Market Harborough in 1859, and the first meeting at Cheltenham (Prestbury Park), arguably the best known modern jump racing venue, was in 1898.

As the sport developed, regulating it became important, but the Jockey Club, which had been regulating flat racing since the mid-eighteenth century, regarded the new sport with suspicion. Accordingly, a separate National Hunt Committee was established in 1866 and continued to run jump racing until 1969, when it and the Jockey Club merged to bring all racing, on the flat and over jumps, in Britain under one governing body. The National Steeplechase Association oversees racing over fences in the United States.

Modern National Hunt racing now consists of several categories, all run on turf on clockwise and counterclockwise courses. Horses run under similar rules in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and France. Elsewhere in Europe, racing over fences takes place but on a much lower scale. Most races are hurdle races or steeplechases, but some races run over more natural obstacles remain—some that are run over exclusively timber fences, and some, called National Hunt flat races, that are run without obstacles.

Apart from the fences, three major differences exist between National Hunt and flat racing, which are important in the epidemiology of the injuries that may occur in the different sports. These differences are the race distance, the age of the horses, and the weights of the riders. All National Hunt races are more than a minimum of 2 miles (3.2 km) compared with the minimum distance of 5 furlongs (1 km) on the flat, and the horses are at least 3 years of age. Forty percent of National Hunt Flat races involve horses of 4 years of age, a slightly higher percentage are 5 years of age, and less than 20% are 6 years of age or older. Most horses competing in flat races are 2 or 3 years old, but it is not unusual for horses over the age of 10 to race in National Hunt races, especially in steeplechases. Finally, National Hunt horses carry 10 stone (63.5 kg) to 11 stone 12 lb (75.3 kg), considerably more weight than flat horses.

Hurdle races are held over fences smaller than those encountered in steeplechasing. In Britain, most hurdles are derived from the simple portable fences used to create temporary pens for sheep, although small brush hurdles are being trialed. They are usually 72 inches (1.83 m) wide and must be not less than 42 inches (107 cm) from top to bottom bar and constructed of ash or occasionally oak. Several hurdle sections are placed end to end to produce an obstacle that must be at least 30 feet (9 m) wide. Each hurdle section consists of two uprights with pointed legs that are driven into the ground and five horizontal rails, between which is interwoven birch or another suitable material. Gorse, which is durable but has sharp thorns, is not permitted. The hurdles must be driven into the ground at an angle of 62 degrees so that the top bar is set back 20 inches (51 cm) from the vertical, and the effective height of the hurdle is 37 inches (94 cm). All of the exposed timber parts must be padded with a minimum of inch (1.3 cm) of high-density polyethylene or closed cell foam rubber (Figure 112-1).

Fig. 112-1 A hurdle race. The jump of the leading horse, which has almost run through the hurdle, is awkward, the hindlimbs are positioned asymmetrically, and the horse’s back is hollow.

Timber hurdles have the advantage that if a horse misjudges the fence and does not jump it cleanly, the hurdle gives way on impact. Old style hurdles were not padded as well as the modern versions and occasionally led to lacerations on the dorsal aspects of the hindlimbs, which could be extensive with degloving injuries of much of the metatarsal region. These injuries have been virtually abolished by the new padding.

In countries other than Britain and Ireland, timber hurdles are replaced by fences that look like small versions of steeplechase fences. Such fences also are seen on a small number of racecourses in Britain, and proponents of these types of fences argue that they provide a better introduction to racing over obstacles for horses that ultimately are intended to be steeplechasers. This may be true, but only 35% of horses that run over hurdles convert to steeplechasing, indicating that hurdle racing has become a specialty sport that draws many of its participants from horses that have raced previously on the flat.

Steeplechases are run from 2 to miles (3 to 7 km) over fences that, with the exception of those at Aintree, over which the Grand National is held, have a standard construction. The course must have at least six fences per mile, one of which must be an open ditch, with the other plain fences. The plain fences must be a minimum of 54 inches high (1.37 m) and constructed of birch, or birch and spruce, in a frame. The use of gorse is not permitted. The base of the fence must be 72 inches (1.83 m) from front to back, with the thickness of the fence at its top not less than 18 inches (46 cm) (Figure 112-2, A). Plain fences usually have a guard rail on the face of the fence that usually is padded with the same material as the hurdles. An open ditch has similar overall dimensions, but the ditch in front of the fence, which may or may not be dug out, must be at least 72 inches (183 cm) from front to back and be delineated by a takeoff board that is up to 24 inches high (146 cm). Designers of racecourses also, if they wish, may include a water jump in steeplechases. These consist of a smaller fence, up to 36 inches (91 cm) high, with a 108-inch (2.74-m)–wide water ditch, which must be 3 inches (7.6 cm) deep, on the landing side of the fence.

Fig. 112-2 A, A steeplechase race in France. B, A point to point race. The fences are smaller than in steeplechase races, and the amateur jockeys tend to be less well positioned.

Point to point races (see Figure 112-2, B), named because originally they were run from one point to another, represent the amateur branch of steeplechasing and are restricted to horses that have qualified to race by hunting with a registered pack of hounds. Races for such horses also take place on licensed racecourses and are known as Hunters’ Steeplechases (or Hunter chases).

Some races, notably in France, at Punchestown in Ireland, and at Cheltenham in Britain, are run over more natural obstacles, including banks and growing hedges. Timber races are held over upright (United States) or sloping (Britain) post and rail fences (Figure 112-3). To make the obstacles less dangerous, the top rails may be sawn through so that they will knock down if they are hit hard.

Fig. 112-3 A timber race. The horse is jumping well, and the rider is in good balance.

Finally, National Hunt flat races are staged for horses that have not run previously on the flat and are at least 3 years old. The races are intended to teach horses to acclimatize to the environment of a racecourse and the rigors of a race, without the additional hazard of obstacles. They also provide a way of demonstrating a horse’s ability so that it can be sold. Colloquially, National Hunt flat races are known as “bumpers,” because originally they were restricted to amateur riders, and the combination of inexperienced riders and horses led to their pejorative nickname.

National Hunt Horses

British and Irish National Hunt horses may be Thoroughbreds, which are registered in the General Stud Book, or non-Thoroughbreds, which are in the Non-Thoroughbred register. Many top-quality French jumping horses are of the Selle Français breed. Horses are started in jump racing by one of two routes. They are raced on the flat at 2 or 3 years of age before moving on to hurdling and possibly to steeplechasing, or they are bred specifically for National Hunt racing. Red Rum, who won the Grand National on three occasions, is an example of a horse that started racing in flat races as a 2-year-old. In general, however, horses that graduate from the flat tend to stay in hurdle races, and only 35% of horses that race over hurdles go on to race in steeplechases. Geldings tend to predominate in both types of race.

Steeplechasers tend to be bred for that particular type of racing and are usually bigger-framed Thoroughbreds compared with flat racehorses. Breeding steeplechasers is less straightforward than breeding for flat races, because most steeplechasers are geldings, meaning that it is unlikely that males can be chosen based on racecourse performance. Finding performance-tested mares also is difficult, because the average age of steeplechasers is the highest of all racing categories, and by the time a mare has proved her ability, she may be past her breeding prime. Therefore most stallions that are popular as sires of steeplechasers are horses that have shown stamina on the flat and then prove to sire successful progeny. Many mares that are used to breed steeplechasers are chosen because of pedigree rather than performance.

Once foaled, many horses destined for steeplechasing are left unbroken until 3 or 4 years of age, when they are often sold as National Hunt stores (horses bred specifically for National Hunt racing) intended to start a racing career at 4 or 5 years of age. This traditional system has been used for many years and could be said to have stood the test of time. Recently, National Hunt breeze-up sales have been introduced and are gaining in popularity. However, some research suggests that horses benefit from an early introduction to regular exercise and from early racecourse experience, and this may reduce the risks of injury.¹ Moreover, the later that horses enter training, the higher the risk of fatal injury.

Training National Hunt Horses

At its simplest, training involves conditioning the cardiovascular, respiratory, and musculoskeletal systems of horses to tolerate maximal exercise. The skill of the trainer is to exert the horse sufficiently to achieve this while avoiding physical injury and without inducing an aversion to hard work. Human athletes, being motivated to succeed, tolerate extreme discomfort during training to achieve their goals. Horses have to be encouraged to exercise and never to anticipate that the result of exercise will be discomfort or pain.

Horses that move to National Hunt racing from flat racing receive the basic conditioning as yearlings and young 2-year-olds. Store horses, however, may do little regular exercise until they are virtually skeletally mature at 4 years. Because they are older, thinking that they require less time to adapt to exercise is tempting, whereas the reverse may be true. It is therefore essential that early preparation is graduated gently and that early signs of failure to adapt, such as sore shins or joint effusions, are noted and training intensity adjusted. If clinical signs go unrecognized or ignored, more serious skeletal defects may develop, such as stress fractures of the tibia, humerus, or pelvis, which may precede catastrophic fractures on the gallops or racecourse. Traditionally, store horses spent at least 6 weeks walking and trotting on quiet roads and tracks before they commenced any faster work. This initial slow preparation has now been abandoned by many trainers, partly because of the difficulty of finding a suitable safe, quiet environment and partly because of the economic pressure to see the horse on the racecourse.

Most trainers of National Hunt horses now use a simple adaptation of interval training over distances of about 1000 m, almost invariably up an incline that may be steep. An average morning workout would be an initial slow warm-up, followed by two brisk canters up the incline on an easy morning, alternating with three faster ascents on a work morning.

One of the most important aspects of training National Hunt horses is teaching them to jump appropriately. Hurdle races are conducted at a fast pace, and some trainers believe that horses that jump the obstacles without touching them, and with the same action as a show jumper, use energy unnecessarily and concede ground to rivals who jump low and flat. This is possible because the timber hurdles give way if the horse hits them, although the ease with which they do this depends on the ground into which the legs of the hurdles have been driven. Once horses have acquired this style of jumping, some trainers argue that the horse finds it difficult to jump the larger, more solid, steeplechase fences. This accounts for the relatively low number of horses that make the transition from hurdling to steeplechasing and the demand in Britain by some trainers for a brush hurdle that, although relatively small, has to be jumped with care. Specialist steeplechasers are encouraged to jump much as horses intended for other disciplines that involve jumping, and they jump low poles and logs, with and without a rider, before progressing to larger obstacles. However, the amount of training carried out over fences by steeplechasers is proportionately much less in the United Kingdom and Ireland than for event horses or show jumpers.

Racing National Hunt Horses

Jump racing developed as a winter sport, probably originally because of the connection with fox hunting, which also is conducted during the winter months. However, jump racing is now held in Britain throughout the year, although those courses that hold summer jump meetings are required to ensure by artificial irrigation that the ground conditions are kept no worse than good to firm. This is because epidemiological studies have shown that firm ground conditions are more likely to be associated with serious injuries. The reason for such a relationship is complex. It is probably related to the speed at which the horses travel, but other complex factors influence the interaction of the horse’s foot with the ground under various conditions, some of which are related to ground hardness, and these require further research and elucidation. Jump racing remains seasonal, however, because the major races take place from November to March, and many horses spend a few weeks turned out during the summer. Seasonal racing influences injury management, because if a horse sustains a clinically significant injury in, for example, late February, the owner or trainer applies pressure for the horse to be ready for the next season—that is, to resume training by October of the same year.

Horses are trained by individual trainers spread throughout the United Kingdom, Ireland, and France and may travel long distances to compete. Therefore any single veterinary surgeon usually does not deal with more than four or five trainers and their horses. At race meetings the horses are subjected to prerace veterinary inspections, and each race is monitored carefully by veterinary surgeons driving on the outside of the track alongside the race and a veterinarian observing the entire race from an appropriate vantage point.

Point to point races are held from January to June. Point to point racing is an amateur sport, raced over obstacles that are smaller and softer versions of the steeplechase fences on licensed racecourses. Some horses that perform well in point to points successfully graduate to steeplechasing, and this route to steeplechasing is chosen by some owners in preference to hurdle racing, possibly after one or more National Hunt flat races. While National Hunt horses run on average between four and five times per year, point to point horses may run more frequently during the season, because the race meetings are usually held at weekends. However, the average number of starts per point to point horse in 2000 was only three.

Because of the two distinct sources of horses that enter National Hunt racing, a wide variety of injuries is seen, ranging from injuries related to beginning training to degenerative injuries associated with overuse. In addition to the injuries sustained while the horse is in training, a National Hunt horse is more prone to injury after a fall than is a flat racehorse (Figure 112-4). It is also important to be aware that horses that are skeletally mature when they begin training (4- to 5-year-old store horses) still undergo the same pathophysiological processes that lead to stress fractures, albeit in different sites from the 2- or 3-year-old Thoroughbred. Because National Hunt racing continues throughout the year, the going under foot (footing) can vary, and extremes of both soft and firm going place the National Hunt horse under extra stress from injury.

Fig. 112-4 A faller at a point to point race. Note the extreme position of the hindlimbs.

A substantially higher death rate occurs in National Hunt racing compared with flat racing.^1-7 In a retrospective analysis of data from all starts from January 1990 to December 1999, 2015 deaths were recorded on racecourses from 719,099 starts.¹ The death rate per 1000 starts was substantially higher in steeplechasers (6.7; 34.5% of the total) and hurdlers (4.0; 43.4% of the total) compared with flat racehorses (0.9; 18.8% of the total). Spinal injuries occur much more frequently in hurdlers (19% of all hurdler deaths) and steeplechasers (23% of steeplechaser deaths) compared with flat racehorses (1% of flat racehorse deaths). Tendon breakdown injuries resulting in humane destruction at the racecourse were also substantially higher in hurdlers (20% of hurdler deaths) and steeplechasers (14% of all steeplechaser deaths) compared with flat racehorses (8% of flat racehorse deaths). Risk of mortality was associated with a number of variables. With steeplechase horses a higher risk occurred in horses that started steeplechase racing at 8 years of age or older. The weight carried was also influential, with horses carrying more than 70 kg minimum weight being at greater risk. Races longer than 4 miles were associated with a higher risk than shorter races. Heavy going, resulting generally in slower speeds, reduced the risk. Good to firm or hard going increased the risk of mortality in hurdlers and steeplechasers.

Timber Racing

Timber racing is considerably more popular in the United States than in the United Kingdom and is more structured. Novice or stakes horses compete only against one another, with greater prize money for stakes races, the most valuable being the Maryland Hunt Cup. The most prestigious race in the United Kingdom is the Marlborough Hunt Cup. Historically the stakes races with the largest amounts of prize money have been open only to amateur jockeys; however, recent rule changes have allowed for professionals to ride in these races in the United States. Timber racing horses often have raced previously on the flat or over hurdles, are usually 6 to 12 years of age, and may have injuries from earlier racing, particularly osteoarthritis (OA) of numerous joints and stable superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injuries.

Track Surface or Training Surface and Lameness

The surfaces and terrain over which horses train vary extremely because the trainers are dispersed widely geographically. Much of the work is done on grass, but fast work often is done on all-weather purpose-built gallops. Many horses hack up to a mile to and from the gallops, ensuring good warm-up and cool-down. However, the standard of maintenance of the gallops varies. Poor gallops with an inconsistent surface varying from soft to deep may increase the risk of tendon injuries or predispose horses to stumbling and accidents such as third carpal bone fractures. Many trainers are based in areas of chalk downland (natural rolling hills with a chalk subsoil), which drains well, but the large number of flints (sharp stones) in the soil may result in a high incidence of bruised soles or sole punctures unless the horses have well-conformed feet. The steepness of the terrain over which the horses do fast work may influence injury. An increased number of pelvic fractures was noted after a new gallop was laid, the last section of which was up a steep incline (RvP). In a yard of 40 horses, one or two horses per year sustained pelvic or tibial stress fractures, but after the new gallop there were seven ilial wing fractures (three right, four left), two sacroiliac subluxations (one bilateral, one right), and two tibial stress fractures. These injuries may have been caused by hind foot slippage. After the gallop was recontoured, the problem resolved.

The influence of falls on the nature of injuries is substantial.^2-7 Most falls occur on landing over a fence. Falls may result from the horse or jockey making a jumping error, from interference by another horse still in the race, or from a loose horse that had previously unseated its rider. The fall of one horse may result in the fall of one or more other horses (Figure 112-5). Thus injuries may result from the fall and impact with other horses. Falls may result in fatal fractures of the cervical or thoracolumbar vertebrae. Rib fractures usually result from a fall and may cause severe lameness and/or respiratory signs. Other fractures seen commonly, usually resulting from a fall, include scapular, radial, and humeral fractures; fractures of the accessory carpal bone; and fractures of the lateral malleolus of the tibia. Major muscle ruptures, especially in the hindlimbs (e.g., semimembranosus, quadriceps, or adductor) also usually result from a fall. Rupture of the fibularis tertius may occur if the horse falls with forced hyperextension of the hock.

Fig. 112-5 Horse no. 12 is about to be brought down by a fallen horse and jockey.

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