Figure 3 Caudocranial projection of scapula.
A Scapula
1 Spine
2 Acromion
3 Subscapular fossa
4 Supraglenoid tubercle
5 Glenoid cavity
B Humerus
6 Greater tubercle
7 Head
8 Lesser tubercle
9 Intertubercular groove
C 1st rib
D 4th rib
Shoulder joint with schematic drawings: Figures 4–14
Figure 4 Mediolateral projection of shoulder joint. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 160% of original size.)
Figure 6 Mediolateral projection of shoulder joint.
A Scapula
1 Spine
2 Supraspinous fossa
3 Infraspinous fossa
4 Acromion
5 Supraglenoid tubercle
6 Glenoid cavity
7 Infraglenoid tuberosity
B Humerus
8 Head
9 Neck
10 Lesser tubercle
11 Intertubercular groove
12 Greater tubercle
13 Crest of the lesser tubercle
14 Tricipital line
15 Deltoid tuberosity
The end-on shadow of the caudal circumflex humeral artery is occasionally seen as a circular soft tissue opacity, surrounded by fat tissue, caudal to the shoulder joint.
Figure 7 Schematic drawing of mediolateral projection of shoulder joint to demonstrate the extent of joint capsule.
Joint capsule
Synovial space
Figure 8 Schematic drawing of mediolateral projection of shoulder joint to demonstrate the ligaments and biceps brachii tendon.
1 Biceps brachii tendon (found on medial aspect of joint)
2 Transverse humeral ligament (found on medial aspect of joint)
3 Thickening of inner surface of joint capsule forming the medial and lateral glenohumeral ligaments
Figure 9 Schematic drawing of mediolateral projection of shoulder joint to demonstrate the typical region of tendons reported as sites of mineralisation.
Coracobrachialis tendon (found on medial aspect of joint)
Supraspinatus tendon on free edge of greater tubercle (found on medial and lateral aspects of joint)
Infraspinatus tendon just distal to greater tubercle(found on lateral aspect of joint)
The biceps brachii tendon has also been reported as a site of mineralisation (see Figure 8)
Figure 10 Caudocranial projection of shoulder joint. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 150% of original size.)
Figure 12 Caudocranial projection of shoulder joint.
A Scapula
1 Spine
2 Acromion
3 Supraglenoid tubercle including coracoid process medially
4 Glenoid cavity
5 Subscapular fossa
B Humerus
6 Greater tubercle
7 Head
8 Lesser tubercle
9 Intertubercular groove
C Clavicle. Often seen in this projection.
Figure 13 Schematic drawing of caudocranial projection of shoulder joint to demonstrate extent of joint capsule.
Joint capsule
Synovial space
Figure 14 Schematic drawing of caudocranial projection of shoulder joint to Demonstrate ligaments and biceps brachii tendon.
1 Biceps brachii tendon
2 Transverse humeral ligament
3 Medial glenohumeral ligament
4 Lateral glenohumeral ligament
Figure 15 Mediolateral projection of humerus. Beagle dog 2.5 years, entire male. (Approximately 140% of original size.)
Figure 16 Line drawing of photograph representing radiographic positioning for Figure 15.
Figure 17 Mediolateral projection of humerus.
A Scapula
1 Spine
2 Acromion
3 Supraglenoid tubercle
4 Glenoid cavity
B Humerus
5 Head
6 Neck
7 Lesser tubercle
8 Intertubercular groove
9 Greater tubercle
10 Condyle. Anatomically only one condyle is present in the dog but frequently the terms lateral and medial condyle are used.
10(a) Capitulum. Lateral aspect
10(b) Trochlea. Medial aspect
11 Medial epicondyle
12 Lateral epicondyle
13 Supratrochlear foramen. This foramen lies between the radial fossa and the olecranon fossa which houses the anconeal process of the ulna.
C Radius
14 Head
15 Neck
D Ulna
16 Olecranon
17 Anconeal process
18 Lateral coronoid process
19 Medial coronoid process
Figure 18 Craniocaudal projection of humerus. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 130% of original size.)
Figure 19 Line drawing of photograph representing radiographic positioning for Figure 18.
Figure 20 Craniocaudal projection of humerus.
A Scapula
1 Spine
2 Acromion
3 Supraglenoid tubercle
4 Glenoid cavity
B Humerus
5 Greater tubercle
6 Intertubercular groove
7 Head
8 Lesser tubercle
9 Tricipital line
10 Deltoid tuberosity
11 Trochlea. Medial aspect of the dog’s single condyle.
12 Capitulum. Lateral aspect of the dog’s single condyle.
13 Medial epicondyle
14 Lateral epicondyle
15 Supratrochlear foramen
C Radius
16 Head
D Ulna
17 Olecranon
18 Anconeal process
19 Medial coronoid process
20 Lateral coronoid process
21 Trochlear notch
22 Lateral cortical margin
Figure 21 Caudocranial projection of humerus. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male (same dog as in craniocaudal projection of humerus, Figure 18). (Approximately 150% of original size.)
Figure 22 Line drawing of photograph representing radiographic positioning for Figure 21.
Elbow joint, including fully flexed mediolateral and oblique, with schematic drawings: Figures 23–41
Figure 23 Mediolateral projection of the extended elbow joint. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 150% of original size.)
Figure 24 Line drawing of photograph representing radiographic positioning for Figure 23.
Figure 25 Mediolateral projection of extended elbow joint.
A Humerus
1 Condyle. Only one condyle is present.
1(a) Capitulum. Lateral aspect.
1(b) Trochlea. Medial aspect.
2 Medial epicondyle
3 Lateral epicondyle
4 Supratrochlear foramen
5 Radial fossa
6 Olecranon fossa
B Radius
7 Head
8 Neck
9 Eminence for attachment of lateral collateral ligament of the elbow joint
C Ulna
10 Medial coronoid process
11 Lateral coronoid process
12 Anconeal process
13 Olecranon
14 Trochlear notch
15 Proximal articulation of radius and ulna
Figure 26 Schematic drawing of mediolateral projection of the extended elbow joint to demonstrate extent of joint capsule.
Joint capsule
Synovial space
Additional soft tissue shadows relating to interosseous area
a Interosseous membrane
b Interosseous ligament. Irregular cortical radial and ulnar margins are often seen in this region, sometimes involving extensive periosteal new bone creating cortical thickening with smoothly undulating cortical bone margins.
Figure 27 Schematic drawing of mediolateral projection of the extended elbow joint to demonstrate ligaments at joint capsule.
1 Lateral and medial collateral ligaments. Both distally divide into two crura to attach to radius and ulna and on a lateral projection are almost superimposed. Cranial crus attaches to the radial tuberosity medially and radial eminence laterally.
2 Annular ligament of the radius. Lies under collateral ligaments. Attached to lateral and medial aspects of the radial notch of the ulna, it forms a ‘loop’ in which the head of the radius can rotate around its long axis.
Figure 28 Schematic drawing of mediolateral projection of extended elbow joint to demonstrate the typical region of tendons reported as sites of mineralisation.
Flexor tendons of carpus and digits. From cranial to caudal location: flexor carpi radialis tendon, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor digitorum superficial and flexor carpi ulnaris tendon (found on medial aspect of joint)
Flexor carpi ulnaris, ulnar head tendon (found on medial aspect of joint)
Figure 29 Mediolateral projection of the flexed elbow joint. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 170% of original size.)
Figure 30 Line drawing of photograph representing radiographic positioning for Figure 29.
Figure 31 Mediolateral projection of the flexed elbow joint.
A Humerus
1 Condyle. Only one condyle is present.
1(a) Capitulum. Lateral aspect.
1(b) Trochlea. Medial aspect.
2 Medial epicondyle
3 Lateral epicondyle
4 Supratrochlear foramen
5 Radial fossa
6 Olecranon fossa
B Radius
7 Head
C Ulna
8 Medial coronoid process. Note that in this projection the lateral coronoid process cannot be seen as a distinct shadow. The extended mediolateral projection of the elbow joint does show the lateral coronoid process.
9 Anconeal process
10 Olecranon
11 Trochlear notch
12 Cranial cortical margin
Figure 32 Schematic drawing of mediolateral projection of the flexed elbow joint to demonstrate the extent of joint capsule.
Joint capsule
Synovial space. There is a voluminous sac of synovial cavity in the cranial and caudal parts of this joint but these do not communicate through the supratrochlear foramen. On the lateral and medial aspects the joint capsule is taut with no sac formation.
Figure 33 Craniocaudal projection of elbow joint. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 200% of original size.)
Figure 34 Line drawing of photograph representing radiographic positioning for Figure 33.
Figure 35 Craniocaudal projection of elbow joint.
A Humerus
1 Condyle. Only one condyle is present.
1(a) Trochlea. Medial aspect.
1(b) Capitulum. Lateral aspect.
2 Medial epicondyle
3 Lateral epicondyle
4 Supratrochlear foramen
B Radius
5 Head
6 Lateral eminence
7 Position of radial tuberosity
Numbers 6 and 7 are landmarks for collateral ligaments.
C Ulna
8 Olecranon
9 Medial coronoid process
10 Lateral coronoid process
11 Lateral cortical margin
12 Medial cortical margin
Figure 36 Schematic drawing of craniocaudal projection of elbow joint to demonstrate extent of joint capsule.
Joint capsule
Synovial space
Figure 37 Schematic drawing of craniocaudal projection of elbow joint to demonstrate ligaments at joint capsule.
1 Lateral collateral ligament
2 Medial collateral ligament
3 Annular ligament of the radius
Figure 38 Schematic drawing of craniocaudal projection of elbow joint to demonstrate typical region of tendons reported as sites of mineralisation.
Flexor tendons of carpus and digits. From distal to proximal location: flexor carpi radialis tendon, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor digitorum superficialis and flexor carpi ulnaris tendon (found on medial aspect of joint)
Flexor carpi ulnaris, ulnar head tendon (found on medial aspect of joint)
Figure 39 Craniolateral–caudomedial oblique projection of elbow joint. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 225% of original size.)
Figure 40 Line drawing of photograph representing radiographic positioning for Figure 39.
Figure 41 Craniolateral–caudomedial oblique projection of elbow joint.
A Humerus
1 Condyle. Only one condyle is present.
1(a) Trochlea. Medial aspect.
1(b) Capitulum. Lateral aspect.
2 Medial epicondyle
3 Lateral epicondyle
4 Supratrochlear foramen
B Radius
5 Head
6 Lateral eminence for attachment of lateral collateral ligament
C Ulna
7 Olecranon
8 Anconeal process
9 Trochlear notch
10 Medial coronoid process
11 Lateral coronoid process (seen as a very opaque linear shadow on the lateral edge of the trochlear notch)
12 Lateral cortical margin
13 Medial cortical margin
Radius and ulna: Figures 42–47
Figure 42 Mediolateral projection of radius and ulna. Beagle dog 2.5 years old, entire male. (Approximately 150% of original size.)
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