Sue McDonnell A considerable number of horses find their way into shelter care in farm animal facilities commonly referred to as farm animal rescues or sanctuary farms as well equine‐specific rescue and rehabilitation or retirement farms. Although current numbers are not readily available, the trend in recent decades has appeared to be a growing number of unwanted horses as well as farm animal rescue and sanctuary farms providing for their care and/or rehoming. Many factors account for this trend in unwanted horses, including increasing cost of maintenance, health care, euthanasia, and carcass disposal, along with changing societal attitudes toward humane euthanasia and humane slaughter of horses for human consumption or as a source of protein for zoo or pet animal feed (American Association of Equine Practitioners 2008). Farm animal rescue facilities vary in the number and types of species accepted. Some specialize in horses, while others accept a variety of farm animal species. Some rescue organizations now not only accept neglected or abused horses confiscated by humane authorities but also actively seek horses for rescue and/or rehabilitation and re‐sale. One common rescue scenario involves purchase of horses from equine auction barns known to serve the export meat market. Rescues typically advertise specific horses for emergency rescue, soliciting monetary donations specifically to save a particular horse from purchase for transport to slaughter. Whether an equine specialist rescue/rehabilitation for adoption or re‐sale, or a general farm animal rescue or sanctuary facility, it is not uncommon for well‐meaning staff caring for these special needs horses to have limited skill and knowledge in care of horses in general or the particular needs common to unwanted horses. This chapter addresses the basic needs particularly relevant to behavior concerns of horses in rescue, rehabilitation, and farm animal sanctuary care. Comprehensive health care guidelines particular for horse rescue and rehabilitation facilities have been outlined by the American Association of Equine Practitioners and are available online (American Association of Equine Practitioners 2012). Horses evolved in open plains as a grazing, herd‐living prey species. Their behavior and physiology have remained, for the most part, unchanged despite centuries of domestic management. Accordingly, their basic health and behavioral welfare needs are similar to their wild ancestors. Although relatively simple, horses’ behavior and health needs are not always understood or intuitive to well‐meaning care staff, whether at shelters or in the equine industry at large. To the extent that these basic needs can be accommodated, welfare will be maximized (Lesimple 2020; Parker and Yeates 2012). The following are key husbandry recommendations. Horses are trickle feeders, in that their digestive system is adapted to continuous through‐put of relatively high‐fiber, calorie‐sparse forages and browse. The natural behavior pattern of horses alternates periods of eating and resting around the clock, with rarely more than 30 to 60 minutes of rest before they resume foraging. For domestically managed horses, these basic behavioral and physiological needs are not always appreciated or easily accommodated. This is likely the principal factor in the high incidence of gastrointestinal disorders in domestically managed horses (Cohen et al. 1999; Buchanan and Andrews 2003). Recent estimates of the prevalence of squamous gastric ulcer disease, for example, vary among breeds and disciplines from 17 to 39% before or when not being trained or worked to 66 to 100% when being trained or competed; estimates of prevalence of glandular ulcer disease are less well known but likely almost as high (Sykes et al. 2015). Colic is another common gastrointestinal condition, with estimates of incidence of more than 4% annually among the general horse population (Traub‐Gardatz et al. 2001). Under free‐roaming/foraging and natural social organization conditions, eating and resting activities are conspicuously synchronized, with all herd members eating or resting at the same time. These activities are obviously socially facilitated, with transitions from one to another initiated by a leader animal within a lead band (McDonnell 2003). Similar social facilitation of eating has been observed in domestically stabled horses with ad lib forage, even when individually stalled (Sweeting et al. 1985). Stabled horses often appear stressed when not fed at the same time as stablemates are fed. Stress behaviors commonly seen in this context include agitated pawing, head or other aggressive threats, frustration head shaking, weaving or stomping, teeth grinding, and stress vocalization. Some grab anxiously at their empty feed tubs, or may grab bites of bedding or gnaw at wood. Some may show other more dangerous food‐urgent/food‐aggressive behaviors such as guarding food tubs, charging and biting caretakers or kicking feed containers they carry to deliver a meal. This is particularly the case for horses fed infrequent, calorie‐dense highly palatable grain meals. Horses with gastric ulcers often seem particularly uncomfortable in this regard. Horses with gastric ulcers typically show specific behaviors indicating gastric discomfort, particularly before and during grain feeding. These can include nuzzling or swatting or nipping the abdomen just behind the shoulder, gazing caudally, ears focused caudally, pawing, stamping, tail swishing, and head shaking (Torcivia and McDonnell 2021). When anticipating feeding, or when neighboring horses are fed and they are not fed or are awaiting their feed, these horses typically display an animated outburst of their particular cluster of gastric discomfort behaviors. For these various reasons, it is recommended that whenever other horses are fed, all in the stable should be fed with as little delay as possible. Those not receiving certain meals should be provided something; for example, a small amount of fresh hay. In addition, as a grazing animal, digestive physiology of equids has evolved for continuous locomotion while ingesting (Houpt 2006). Horses naturally graze in a characteristic foraging style of locomotion, moving along taking bites, chewing and swallowing with their head down at ground level most of the time. For horses with limited grazing opportunities, it is helpful to provide forage at ground level in multiple locations around their enclosure rather than using raised stationary hay racks or feeders. Chewing and swallowing are most efficient with the head in that normal low grazing posture (Clauss 2013). When horses have a good 360‐degree view of the environment with the head low to the ground, they will likely continue chewing and swallowing with the head in that grazing position. If their view is occluded many will take a bite and then raise the head to monitor threats while chewing and swallowing, reducing efficiency of chewing and swallowing (Houpt 2006). Horses eating natural forage, typically high in water content, may not drink water at regular intervals, but it is standard of care for domestically managed horses to be provided free access to water. Horses generally adapt to various watering methods (buckets, tubs, automatic water bowls) and to variation in water quality (chemical characteristics affecting taste or odor). Although rare, some horses are reluctant to drink water with particular characteristics, especially chemically treated municipal water or inadvertently chemically adulterated water. Care should be taken to avoid disinfectant or soap residues in water buckets or automatic watering bowls. When first caring for a particular horse, carefully monitor drinking behavior and total water intake. When water level cannot be used to measure water intake, as with automatic watering systems and group housed horses sharing water tubs or buckets, manure consistency should be monitored as an indication of adequate hydration. Freshly voided fecal balls should appear slightly moist rather than dry and crumbly. Reduced water intake is a common cause of gastrointestinal discomfort and can lead to dehydration colic. In cold weather, particularly with a sudden change in ambient temperature from above to below freezing, horses tend to drink less (Kristula and McDonnell 1994). To maintain good hydration during subfreezing weather, it is advisable to provide only warm water (several degrees above freezing). That is because when both ambient icy cold and warmer water are simultaneously available, horses preferentially drink the colder water but drink a smaller volume than if only warm water were available. In subfreezing ambient conditions, plastic water buckets filled with water as warm as 100° F will often remain above freezing for several hours and longer if insulated. Herd vigilance is the natural predator avoidance strategy of horses with escape as a group the first response to threat. Therefore, horses appear to be most comfortable psychologically when with other compatible horses and with as little confinement as possible. Horses are typically more comfortable when kept in outdoor enclosures with or within sight of other horses. Whether in stall confinement or in outdoor paddocks, horses seem most relaxed with a 360‐degree open view. Healthy horses are remarkably adaptable to various climates and extremes in environmental conditions. Their natural hair coat (undisturbed by clipping, blanketing, or frequent bathing) is sufficient to enable adequate thermoregulation under a broad range of weather conditions. Natural (e.g., trees, hedges, boulders, gullies) or artificial (e.g., sheds, lean‐tos) means for horses to protect themselves from changes in the environmental condition should be available in open pastures or paddocks. Horses should be provided with sufficient space to exercise freely at the walk or greater gait, comfortably lie down for uninterrupted rest, and to roll. The standard indoor box stall measures at least 100 sq. ft., in a roughly square configuration. Ideally, stabled horses are given at least one to several hours daily turn‐out into a pasture or paddock, not confined 24/7 to an indoor stall (Lemarchand et al. 2019). Outdoor paddocks typically range in size from less than one acre to many acres. Larger paddocks have the advantage of safely allowing exercise at more than a walk or slow trot. It is customary and recommended to quarantine newly arriving horses from resident equids, typically for at least two to three weeks. Equine herpes myeloencephalopathy and salmonella are two examples of diseases with a large percentage of latently infected individuals that tend to shed microorganisms in association with the usual stress of change in physical and social environment, transport, and management. Strangles, an often lethal bacterial (Streptococcus equi) infection, is common in auction and other holding facilities through which rescue horses may pass. More comprehensive summaries of health care concerns and quarantine recommendations for rescued horses are available (American Association of Equine Practitioners 2012; Boswell 2020). For many reasons, quarantine itself can be a particularly stressful time for relocated horses. Biosecurity concerns typically require physical isolation of newly arriving horses from direct contact with other equids during the quarantine period, as well as dedicated equipment and staff so as not to transmit infectious diseases. For some horses, isolation from other horses can be quite stressful. Visual contact with one or more other equids usually appears to provide some comfort. When not within visual contact of other horses, a mirror, poster, or virtual companion video featuring a calm horse can, in many cases, be a helpful substitute (see Figure 24.1). For some individuals, other species can appear to provide positive companionship during the quarantine period. For example, if a horse is familiar with goats, which are often kept at horse stables, a goat can serve as a stall or paddock companion. Figure 24.1 Hospitalized zebra foal with a mirror as a substitute companion. Horses generally seem to acclimate to new environments more efficiently when human handling is limited. During a quarantine period, minimum handling is advisable for biosecurity reasons, of course, but it will also minimize stress from human‐animal interaction while the horse is acclimating to other aspects of the new environment. While admission protocols may require early veterinary examinations and behavior evaluations, these interactions with new people, often with different human‐animal interaction styles and equine skills, can be stressful to a recently relocated horse. Any human‐animal interactions, either of a newly arriving horse or any other animal within sight or sound, should involve quiet, calm, respectful low‐stress handling and care. Particularly for health care procedures, all personnel should be skilled with and/or supportive of primarily non‐confrontational, positive reinforcement‐based techniques as detailed below for the most common health care procedures (Foster 2017; McDonnell 2017; Watson and McDonnell 2018). Environmental enrichment for horses can take many forms, including, for example, hay balls and pillows that slow the intake and/or require “foraging behaviors,” hanging licks, rolling balls, and grab and toss toys (see Figure 24.2). Experience indicates that initial interest in and duration of use of any particular form of environmental enrichment varies among individual horses. Enrichment in the form of daily, simple training sessions, for example, target training with obstacle courses, reverse round pen training, or simple trick training, can provide positive human‐animal interaction. For horses with experience‐related handling difficulties, or for previously unhandled horses, these activities can build trust in human handling and build basic skills that will make the horse more appealing to potential future owners. Figure 24.2 Simple water ice lick with pieces of hay and carrot frozen in a ring cake pan mold. Domestic horses are reared, trained, and kept under a variety of environmental conditions in which they may or may not have been exposed to other common farm species and pets. Horses, particularly adult horses that have not been previously exposed to other species, normally react with fear when first exposed. When unable to flee, as would be the natural reaction of horses as a prey species, exposure to unfamiliar species may result in a cowering retreat to the extent possible, or defensive aggression, and often includes an initial “blow” alarm vocalization and stance (McDonnell 2003). These normal fear/alarm behaviors can occur at a distance, often before visual contact, or even when approaching an area where the novel species had been; presumably such responses are mediated via current or residual olfactory stimuli. If leading a horse, fear may result in displaced (also known as redirected) aggression toward the handler rather than the inciting source. A common scenario is for a fearful horse to hesitate, stop, or pull away. When handlers misinterpret the horse’s fear behavior as disobedience or stubbornness, they may respond with coercive methods to move the horse toward or past the feared species. In this situation the fearful horse may bite or lunge at the handler rather than the feared species. Forced exposure to a feared species, for example, housing near or in the same barn, without gradual introduction, can result in behaviors associated with distress (e.g., locomotor stereotypies, frantic self‐injurious attempts to escape, inappetence, restlessness, cowering depression). For these reasons, care should be taken when exposing a horse with unknown species experience history. Any novel species may elicit an adverse response, but it is most common with first exposure to pigs, llamas, alpacas, cattle, exotic equids (e.g., zebra or equid crosses), sheep, or goats. One of the most common root causes of aggression of horses toward their caretakers or herd mates is underlying physical discomfort or illness (Fureix et al. 2010; Hausberger et al. 2016). In many cases, the aggression is easily interpreted as misbehavior. Therefore, whenever aggression is observed, particularly if uncharacteristic for that individual horse, physical discomfort or illness should be ruled out. Horses also readily learn to be aggressive to humans when subjected to punitive handling and/or inadvertent negative reinforcement of ordinary avoidance behaviors or fear‐related defensive responses. Intact adult male horses (stallions) are particularly vulnerable to learned aggressive responses, as they typically have a lower threshold for aggression. In addition, their aggressive responses are typically more animated, and therefore inherently more dangerous, so more likely to be negatively reinforced. For these reasons, stallions require specialized housing and especially skilled, non‐confrontational handling. Shelter staff inexperienced with stallions should not handle or directly interact with them. Stallions not intended for breeding, which is likely the case for most in shelters, should be castrated. Following castration, it may take several weeks or more for stallion‐like aggression and sexual behavior to dissipate to gelding levels. Many geldings continue to retain some level of residual stallion‐like sexual behavior when exposed to mares, independent of age or previous breeding experience (Line et al 1985; McDonnell, 1992). For geldings of unknown history with problematic levels of stallion‐like sexual and/or aggressive behavior, cryptorchidism or testicular remnant should be ruled out (McCue 2021). Some horses, particularly those that have experienced poorly managed nutrition or periods of starvation, become food urgent (anxiously active at feeding time) and/or food aggressive. Anticipation of feeding can incite aggressive guarding of the feeding area and these horses may direct aggression at herd mates and may kick barriers when in separate enclosures. They may also show aggressive guarding of feed from approaching care staff. These problems tend to be more severe when the horse is fed infrequent, highly palatable, grain meals, whether or not forage is available between meals. Horses exhibiting food aggression do best with continuous access to an all‐forage diet and salt/trace mineral licks. Occasionally, a group housed horse will similarly guard a point water source. In some instances, horses will mark their feed or water with feces, as is the case for wild and feral horses; in domestic horses, this can result in fecal soiling of the water containers. In such cases water must be checked for soiling frequently. Sometimes fecal soiling of water can be prevented by repositioning the bucket or installing an apron around the bucket or waterer that prevents soiling. Although repetitive behaviors, wood chewing and object licking in horses are considered the result of nutritional (salt/mineral) deficiencies. These typically subside when salt/trace mineral licks are provided. These behaviors are distinct from stereotypies. Stressed horses can easily develop locomotor stereotypies (Houpt and McDonnell 1993; Roberts et al. 2017; Mills 2005). In horses, the most common locomotor stereotypies include pacing, circling, weaving, and pawing. These are not misbehaviors but rather the natural result of physical and/or psychological discomfort. The behaviors should not be punished or otherwise discouraged. Rather, efforts should be made at improving environmental conditions to minimize stress as described in Sections 24.2 and 24.4. Cribbing is an unusual behavior that is one of the more common problems in horses. It is considered an oral stereotypy, although it is distinct from other stereotypies in several aspects.
24
Equine Care
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Basic Husbandry Needs of Horses Relevant to Behavior
24.2.1 Free Access to High‐Fiber, Calorie‐Sparse Forage
24.2.2 Free Access to Fresh, Clean Water
24.2.3 Social Companionship
24.2.4 Protection from Harsh Environmental Conditions
24.2.5 Sufficient Space
24.3 Quarantine
24.4 Environmental Enrichment
24.5 Common Behavior Problems Relevant to Shelter Environments
24.5.1 Unfamiliarity/Fear of Other Species
24.5.2 Aggression
24.5.3 Food Urgency/Aggression
24.5.4 Wood Chewing/Object Licking
24.5.5 Stereotypies
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