Introduction

Aggression is the most common behavior problem for which dogs are referred to veterinary behaviorists.¹ Canine aggression not only poses a risk to family members, but also raises public safety concerns. In 2010, the Centers for Disease Control estimated that 4.7 million people in the USA were bitten by dogs; approximately 800 000 of those bites required medical attention and 16 of the attacks were fatal.² The most common bite victims are boys between the ages of 5 and 9.³ Most children are bitten by dogs with which they are familiar, and younger children most often by the family dog in their own home.^4,5 Aggression has a strong impact on the human–animal bond, leading to emotional stress for the owner, poor quality of life, and an increased risk of relinquishment or euthanasia for the pet.⁶

Aggression is defined as a physical act or threat of action by one individual that reduces the freedom or genetic fitness of another.⁷ This definition encompasses a wide variety of behaviors, from subtle body postures and facial expressions to explosive attacks. Dogs don’t have to bite to be characterized as aggressive. A growl, lunge, snap, nip, or even tense body posture can be viewed as aggression. Most types of aggression are treatable, but many are not curable. As with medical diseases, positive outcomes are easier to achieve when treatment is initiated soon after onset and predisposed individuals are targeted for prevention (Box 20.1). There can be a strong genetic component to aggression in certain breeds with pathophysiologic changes reported in the English Springer spaniel (conformation-bred dogs more than field dogs) and the English cocker spaniel (especially associated with golden coat color).^8–11

Approach to diagnosis and treatment

Pain resulting from a variety of medical problems (e.g., otitis externa, arthritis, atopy, gastroenteritis) can cause or contribute to aggression. Medical diseases (e.g., hyperadrenocorticism, hypothyroidism, seizures, hepatoencephalopathy) can manifest with signs of aggression. Because of the possibility of an underlying medical cause or contributing disease, dogs presented for aggression should receive a physical examination and screening laboratory work, including a minimum of a complete blood count, serum chemistry, urinalysis, and thyroid assessment. This also serves to establish a baseline of health which is necessary before instituting pharmaceutical therapy (see Chapter 6).

Aggressive displays may be viewed directly by the clinician if the circumstance arises; however, most often the diagnosis is based on the history provided by the owner. A video of the behavior can be very helpful, but for safety reasons owners should not be encouraged to provoke aggressive behavior in order to make a recording. By the same token, clinicians should not deliberately provoke aggressive behavior. This type of activity weakens client trust, worsens the behavior of the pet, and puts the clinician and support staff in harm’s way. History taking for aggression cases is no different than for medical problems. For example, when a patient presents for vomiting, the owner describes the behavior so that the veterinarian can separate vomiting from regurgitation but does not attempt to elicit the vomiting. Guidelines for behavioral consultations are covered in Chapter 5. Before consulting on cases of aggression, it would be prudent to consider having a release form signed. See Appendix C, form C12, client form 1, printable version available online. This may not always be sufficient to protect against legal action. Liability can vary depending on the case, level of expertise, and the jurisdiction in which the case is heard. Therefore it might be advisable to check with your attorney to determine the type of release that most suits your practice.

The experience and behavior as a puppy, age of onset, signalment, overall health, contributing medical diseases, temperament, body language, vocalizations, inciting stimulus, situations in which the aggression is displayed, target, motivation, and progression should be considered when making a diagnosis (Box 20.3). Repeated exposure and learning (including owner response and victim response) can modify the pet’s behavior, so the practitioner should collect information on any change in the body language, inciting stimuli, and situations for aggression since the first aggressive displays. It is not uncommon for dogs to present with multiple types of aggression. In these cases, the veterinarian should design the treatment plan by prioritizing and addressing the most dangerous types.

Regardless of the type of aggression the general goals of treatment are: (1) prevent further aggression and injury; (2) build a stable relationship with the owner using consistency, rewards, and training products where necessary to gain effective control; (3) lower the dog’s arousal, anxiety, fear, or impulsivity; and (4) condition an acceptable emotional and behavioral response to inciting stimuli and situations.

An appropriate treatment plan should include: (1) medical evaluation and treatment as necessary; (2) education of the family about all aspects of the problem; (3) safety recommendations; (4) management changes; (5) behavior modification; (6) management tools (e.g., head halter, muzzle, leash); and (7) medication, if warranted (Table 20.1). Specific recommendations will depend on the diagnosis, environment, ability of the owner to implement the plan, latency to attack, and severity of the disease.

Table 20.1 General guidelines for treatment of aggression in dogs

Risk assessment: safety comes first! Begin by listing all aggression-eliciting triggers so that strategies can be implemented to ensure that each situation is avoided. If it is not possible to predict and prevent all situations in which aggression might arise, then it may be unsafe and impractical to proceed. Pet owner compliance, in particular the willingness and ability to implement the recommendations, is critical for safety and success. It is especially important to protect children by recommending that the dog be separated from children even if the dog has not shown aggression to children. Children can get bitten when they reach for a dog when the dog is barking or during a dog fight, in contexts of resource guarding, and even in benign interactions such as hugging or petting.⁵ Unfortunately, dog owners have limited knowledge of these risks. In one study 82% of respondents thought it was safe for children to kiss and hug their own dogs and 45% indicated they would restrain their dog if it moved away from an unfamiliar child who wanted to pet it.¹² Children are at greater risk of being bitten because they are inherently unpredictable, inconsistent, smaller, and closer to the dog’s eye level and mouth.

Management changes are intended to help the owner avoid bites and lower the dog’s arousal while behavior modification is implemented. Behavior modification should first be directed at achieving owner control through operant conditioning and then working toward changing the animal’s emotional response to a more positive one through classical conditioning. Specific recommendations vary based on diagnosis. Behavior control for most diagnoses is built on obedience training, structure, predictability, consistency, and controlling resources. Various names for exercises that facilitate structure are: learn to earn, nothing in life is free, predictable consequences, and structured interactive training (SIT) say please, (see Appendix C, form C.14, client handout #13, printable version available online). Basically, we will describe this as training a relaxed sit to get anything of value from the owner. If there is some impediment (e.g., arthritis) to teaching SIT, the pet can be taught to back up, touch a hand, or lie down as an acceptable alternative. The behavior itself is not as important as the structure and consistency provided by the predictable interactions with the family. Many owners think that it is sufficient to ask the dog to sit before the food bowl is put down or the leash is put on. However, for this program to work, SIT is required before any and all attention is given to the dog. Within about 7 days, the dog should be offering this behavior for anything of value instead of having to be instructed to sit. Owners should be advised to ignore all other attempts for attention other than sitting. If it is impossible to ignore the dog, they should walk away. This exercise is simple, yet has a huge impact on the dog’s behavior because it makes the dog’s interactions with people predictable and consistent, lowering anxiety and aggression. If consequences are predictable the dog learns which behaviors (e.g. sit) get rewards and which don’t (e.g. bark, jump, grab). Only then can counterconditioning and desensitization exercises be used to change the pet’s emotional response to inciting stimuli.

Before initiating treatment, the veterinarian should decide if counterconditioning to the stimulus or situation is necessary or safe. Consider the dog who growls at the owner when the owner rolls over in bed at night, inadvertently moving the dog. This would be a difficult stimulus to condition the dog to accept as both the dog and the owner may be asleep or in a state of decreased awareness when it happens. It would be much easier to recommend that the owner simply relegate the dog to sleep in a dog bed or in a crate (see Appendix C, form C.14, client handout #13, printable version available online).

All forms of physical punishment, such as shock, hitting, yelling, prong collars, and hanging by choke collars, should be avoided. These types of activity have been shown to increase aggression.¹³ Dogs that have been subjected to punishment and those without formal training classes are more likely to show aggression and avoidance.^14,15 Punishing the dog for displaying warning signals (e.g., growling, barking) may suppress the signal without treating the underlying problem and may result in the dog learning to bite without warning (Box 20.4).

As with medical problems, it is important for the veterinarian to diagnose and treat canine aggression problems. Once the dog is diagnosed and the treatment plan is written, it can be turned over (with ongoing oversight) to a qualified applied animal behaviorist or behavioral technician if the veterinarian so chooses. Veterinarians should interview the behaviorists, verify that their methods are reinforcement-based, watch them train various dogs, and know what techniques (e.g., clicker training) and products (e.g., head halter) they are familiar with. In addition, they should set up a protocol for communication each time the dog is seen by either party.

Medications, supplements, and diet changes can be used to reduce anxiety and arousal (see Box 20.5). When using medication as part of a treatment plan for canine aggression, all recommendations should be documented and the owner should be informed in writing of all risks, particularly for any off-label use. To meet the standard of care, veterinarians must provide behavior modification, management, and/or safety recommendations with medication.

From time to time, there have been anecdotal reports that aggression might be related to dietary ingredients or preservatives. While there are no studies to support these claims, a trial with a novel antigen, vegetarian, or homemade diet could be utilized and the pet challenged with the original diet if improvement is seen. In one small study a low-protein diet with tryptophan supplementation was partially effective in the treatment of territorial aggression¹⁶ (see Chapter 10).

No discussion of aggression would be complete without mention of euthanasia. The decision to recommend euthanasia is fraught with ethical, moral, and personal dilemmas. Since safety is the primary concern, rehoming the dog is risky. Owners, rescue organizations, and/or the veterinarian may be responsible for future bites after a dog is rehomed. Factors to consider when discussing euthanasia are the prognosis, the ability of the owner to ensure safety, and the dog’s quality of life. If the owner is considering this option, the pet should be referred to a qualified veterinary behaviorist for evaluation. Canine aggression is often treatable, extending and improving the quality of life of the pet. Dogs should not be given a negative prognosis simply because they show aggression.

Phone follow-up and in-person rechecks are important for a positive outcome. Owners of aggressive dogs should be contacted at 2-week intervals by support staff or the veterinarian for the best outcome.¹⁷ Do not lose touch with these clients: the risks of injury and liability are too great. In-person rechecks should be planned for 1–2 months after the first appointment and then as needed for consistent progress.

The role of neutering

Neutering may affect a variety of behaviors but results of gonadectomy studies have been somewhat conflicting. One study suggested marking, mounting, masturbation, and aggression toward other male dogs and territorial aggression might be prevented or reduced by castration.¹⁸ Another study suggested that neutering does not appear to decrease the likelihood of aggression in male dogs, with perhaps the exception of some cases of territorial and intermale aggression.¹⁹ However, one recent study found no effect of neutering on intermale aggression, roaming, or mounting.²⁰

Gonadectomy decreases gonadal steroid hormones and has been correlated with a decrease in sexually dimorphic behaviors.^21–26 A study of pet dogs suggested that male dogs are more likely to score above the median on owner-directed aggression, and dogs that were neutered/spayed were less likely to score above the median on owner-directed aggression than intact individuals.¹⁴ A study by Guy et al. found that the odds ratio of biting a member of the household was highest for neutered male dogs followed by neutered female dogs, intact male dogs, and the lowest level by intact females.²⁷ Similar effects were seen for growling and possessive aggression.²⁷ In another study by Messam et al., intact males were 1.68 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.05–2.71) times more likely to bite than castrated males, but 0.80 (95% CI 0.55–1.14) times as likely to bite as intact females.²⁸

Some studies suggest that spayed females are more likely to display certain types of aggression when compared with intact females.^29,30 An increase in reactivity toward humans with unfamiliar dogs and in aggression toward family members has also been reported after ovariohysterectomy of bitches in several studies.^29–31 While the cause has not been determined, it may be due to a decrease in estrogen and oxytocin concentrations, both of which may have some antianxiety effects.³² Of course, when female dogs display hormonally related signs of aggression during estrus, as a part of maternal behavior or pseudopregnancy, these will be eliminated by spaying.

Working-dog trainability does not appear to be altered by gonadectomy in general, nor with the age of the dog at the time of gonadectomy.³³

Since there can be a hereditary component to aggression, gonadectomy should seriously be considered for patients with aggressive behavior.

As you can see, even as we gather more information regarding how gonadectomy influences behavior, there is conflicting information and still many unanswered questions. More research is certainly needed.

The role of arousal

Most types of aggression have an associated physiologic response (i.e., fight or flight), including the mobilization of glucose, tachycardia, and tachypnea.³⁴ This is why the treatment of aggression generally includes techniques that focus on changing the emotional state of the dog as opposed to simply attempting to correct the behavior being displayed. There is also increased memory consolidation and retrieval.³⁴ In other words, dogs are more likely to remember what happened and how they behaved to avoid the stressor when there is a physiologic stress reaction than they are when taught behaviors when they are calm. When a dog is under chronic stress, the threshold for aggression can decrease, causing a general increase in reactivity to stimuli. For example, if a dog has fear-related aggression and storm phobia, the aggression may get worse during storm season due to chronic physiologic stress. Some attacks may be truly unprovoked, while others may seem impulsive and appear unprovoked. In most cases they just appear that way because the owner doesn’t see the subtle warning signs or the warning signs may have been muted by punishment. Owners may describe their previously lovable dog as tense, exhibiting a glazed look before displaying aggression. This type of arousal can be associated with any type of aggression. If the dog has a high level of arousal, medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or drugs and supplements to reduce anxiety, reactivity, and impulsivity should be considered (see Chapters 8 and 9, Box 20.5).

The role of dominance and pack theory

Dominance describes the relationship between two individuals, not a personality trait. While dominance was previously thought to be at the core of most owner-directed aggression, recent research suggests that many dogs which display owner-directed aggression are primarily fearful and often in a state of conflict (anxious and uncertain).^35,36 Although it is tempting to make direct comparisons between wolves and dogs, the domestication of the dog for tens of thousands of years makes absolute comparisons inaccurate and unreliable. Feral dogs sometimes form large groups presumably for safety; however they do not form packs of related individuals, hunt in packs, or care for each other’s young as wolves do.^37–39 Hierarchies do appear to exist among domestic dogs and perhaps with family members with whom they live; however, relationships might more accurately be described in terms of resource-holding potential and learned behaviors (consequences). While pairwise relationships may be seen, a hierarchy is generally not evident.⁴⁰ However, groups of individuals do require a system of organization with some level of social asymmetry in order to resolve conflicts without aggression. Veterinarians who diagnose and treat canine aggression cases should have a good understanding of how to interpret canine body language and whether the dogs behavior is abnormal (see Box 20.5). See Chapter 2 and Appendix B: Facial and body language resources. In general, dominance may have little relevance in the context of diagnosing and treating canine behavior problems (www.dogwelfarecampaign.org).

Behavior pathology

In each case of aggression, regardless of the diagnosis, careful consideration must be given to whether the dog is behaviorally abnormal (behavior pathology) (see also Chapter 22). These cases may require drug therapy in conjunction with management and behavior modification, both from the pet’s standpoint to improve its mental health and welfare, and from a behavior modification standpoint to help achieve a satisfactory level of improvement (see Box 20.5):

Many of these dogs will require medication in combination with the management and behavior modification program, usually a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. In some cases a concurrent drug such as trazodone, clonidine or benzodiazepine, might be added for as-needed or ongoing use. Dose adjustments and other drug combinations might also be considered (see Chapter 8 and Appendix D).

The role of learning

Learning complicates diagnosis because it can significantly change the body language and behaviors that are displayed. Consider the dog presented for growling at the owner when the food bowl is removed. If the motivation for the growling (anxiety about removal of the resource) isn’t addressed, but instead the owner verbally disciplines the pet and removes the food bowl, even if the growling ceases the dog still has anxiety in this situation, causing it to try alternate coping strategies such as lunging or biting. When the dog bites, the owner will most likely recoil, even if for a split second, negatively reinforcing the bite. This will cause the biting to increase. It is unreasonable and unsafe to advise an owner to continue to let a dog bite to avoid negatively reinforcing that behavior; however, it is reasonable to recommend that the owner should stop picking up the bowl until the primary motivation is addressed.

Some dogs attempt to communicate with the owner but the signals are ignored, causing the dog to climb the ladder of aggression. Consider the dog presented for aggression toward familiar people when hugged. From the first hug, the dog may have licked its lips and averted its gaze (signs of stress and disengagement) because hugging is aversive to it. If the owner misses these signs and continues to interact with the dog, it may soon progress from benign signals to more offensive ones. Finally, when the dog bites the owner, she retreats and the behavior is negatively reinforced, teaching the dog to bite instead of warn in more subtle ways. This type of dog may be presented for treatment or euthanasia with a history of unprovoked bites when for days, months, or years the dog had been attempting to signal in a nonoffensive way.

Another scenario is the puppy that is play biting. If owners use positive punishment to deter the behavior (hit, squeeze the mouth, pin to the floor), the desire to play may not be lessened but the puppy may become increasingly anxious about the owner’s response. If the play biting is also sometimes successful at getting the owners to play, this may place the pet in a situation of conflict since the pet is still motivated to play but uncertain about how the owner will respond, which can progress to handshyness, and conflict-related aggression. Predictable owner responses (SIT training, say please, watch) teaches what behaviors are needed to initiate play (see Handouts 13 and 26 on the website).

For the best possible outcome, each case history should be closely examined for clues of how behaviors have been punished and reinforced to create the behavior for which the dog is being presented.

Risk assessment for aggressive dogs

It would be ideal to be able to assess the risk of injury from a particular dog without a shadow of a doubt, but that is not possible. Dogs are sentient beings and as such their behavior cannot accurately be predicted 100% of the time. In addition, every biting dog was once a dog that had not done so, meaning that if only past behavior is used to predict future behavior, predictions may inevitably be inaccurate. Aggression affects every breed and both sexes. In one study, biting dogs tended to be female, neutered, smaller dogs that live in homes with children, show aggression over food, and are excitable and/or are fearful of children, men, and/or strangers.⁴¹ When severe bites are examined, dogs tend to be larger, male, and purebred.⁴² Other studies have suggested that mixed-breed dogs were most likely to be diagnosed with aggression, and that English Springer spaniels are sometimes overrepresented.^1,43 The majority of dogs who bite are neutered.²⁷ Large dogs (>18.2 kg) that have a short latency to arousal (i.e., act immediately to minimal stimuli) and are unpredictable are more likely to be euthanized when compared to smaller dogs.⁴⁴ This is most likely due to the amount of damage that results from the bites. Bite inhibition has been used in an attempt to assess the level of danger from a particular dog; however, bite inhibition scales have not been validated. It is not uncommon for a dog to bite with different levels of bite inhibition depending on the situation and victim.

Caution should be used when trying to predict a particular dog’s level of aggression. In general, it is best to assume that the dog will bite again and cause injury. This way, bites will generally be avoided, keeping others safe. Still, the veterinarian has to be able to give the owners of an aggressive dog a prognosis. Five categories should be considered when determining prognosis: (1) latency to arousal (impulsivity); (2) environment; (3) complexity of the situation; (4) potential to do harm; (5) predictability; and (6) emotional stability of the dog. The latency to arousal is how long it takes for the dog to show signs of stress or attack. Signs of stress generally precede an aggressive display and should be used for this measurement. If dog A starts to attack within 1 second of seeing someone, as opposed to dog B that doesn’t attack until the person is present for 10 seconds, the latency to arousal is relatively short for the first dog. Dogs with a short latency to arousal will generally be more difficult to manage and more dangerous than dogs with a longer latency to arousal.

The environment is extremely important when considering the potential for a positive outcome. For example, if the presenting complaint is growling at children and the dog lives in a busy household with three children under 5 years old, the environment is a negative prognostic factor. If that same dog lived in a quiet neighborhood with a childless couple, the environment would be a positive prognostic factor. The potential to do harm includes factors such as the size of the dog, bite history, severity of previous bites, targets, and level of arousal. Dogs with a history of pursuing the victim, multiple bites per incident, or more severe bites should be considered more dangerous than dogs that have not bitten (assuming the dog has been in a situation in which it could have bitten). Dogs that have bitten multiple times in one bout, are interrupted, and then when released go back to the victim or become so aroused that they cannot easily be pulled off, should be considered more dangerous. The complexity of the problem includes the presence of concurrent behavior problems, the presence of the trigger stimuli in the environment, the owner’s ability to implement the plan, the presence of children or elderly in the house, and the presence of other pets. Care should be taken not to prejudge clients. If the veterinarian is concerned about the ability of the clients to implement the plan, the clients should be asked directly what they see as the challenges to treatment. Then those challenges can be addressed in the treatment plan. The predictability of the dog includes factors such as whether all aggression-eliciting stimuli can be identified, the presence of identifiable warning signals, and the consistency in which the animal responds to environmental stimuli. For example, if the owner cannot provide an accurate history with a list of triggers, that case will be more difficult and potentially more dangerous to treat than a case where the list is relatively complete. Dogs that display warning signals might be easier to interrupt when compared with dogs who signal in more subtle ways. See Appendix B: Communication – Facial and Body Language Resources. Dogs with unstable temperaments tend to be more dangerous in general. The presence of children in the home is a negative prognostic indicator for canine aggression cases.⁴⁴ Children are more unpredictable, inconsistent, and move more quickly than adults. A large, strong dog that bites children unpredictably without inhibition in a home with small children will pose an extremely high risk for a serious injury (Table 20.2).

Table 20.2 Considerations for assessing danger and risk of injury*

^*Also see ESVCE risk assessment position statement (esvce.org) and in recommended reading below.

Conflict-related aggression

Conflict-related behaviors are seen when there are competing states of motivation and when there is frustration over the inability to perform desired behaviors (see Chapter 11). Conflict can lead to aggression. Dogs that exhibit conflict-related aggression are often fearful and/or anxious dogs. Dogs with conflict-related aggression are unsure how to avoid confusing or disagreeable interactions with their owners because they lack control over outcomes. Due to inconsistent owner signals and actions, the dog learns that aggression is the best way to stop the interaction (see the role of learning, earlier in this chapter). The dog may initially exhibit signs of submission, anxiety, uncertainty, or fear and then progress to aggression. If the signs (e.g., ears back, horizontal retraction of lips, lip lick, inguinal presentation) are subtle or ignored, the dog enters a state of conflict with a resulting arousal response. The state of arousal can lead to aggression, even when the challenge seems to be relatively benign (e.g., owners attempting to pat a resting dog). For example, a fearful puppy is approached by the owner and told to get off the couch. The puppy hasn’t been taught to get off the couch effectively and is confused. When confronted, the puppy displays submissive signaling such as ears back and tail down. The owner responds by pulling the dog by the collar to get it off the couch. If these interactions are repeated, the dog will progress to stronger signals such as growling and eventually biting. The dog is in conflict as to how to respond since its initial appeasing and submissive signals resulted in confrontation and punishment, which ultimately leads to fear and conflict-related aggression.

Resource guarding

Resource guarding (possessive aggression) is a common problem in dogs. It is a normal behavior which can become maladaptive. It may be directed at familiar and unfamiliar humans or other animals that approach the dog when it is near or in possession of something it values. Guarded items can include food bowls, chew toys, people, pets, or places. Novel or stolen items are very likely to be guarded. Resource guarding is accompanied by physiologic arousal (e.g., dilated pupils, tense body posture) and stems from an underlying anxiety that items will be removed when the dog is approached. Owners often negatively reinforce this behavior by backing away when the pet growls. In addition, these dogs have not been taught to expect a reward for relinquishing an item or to relinquish items on cue. In other words, the dog is anxious about people taking its stuff and then its worst fear – that its stuff will be taken away – comes true. If the dog runs away, hides, or growls, the owner often chases it and forcefully takes the item. Through these interactions, the dog learns fearful body postures and avoidance are not effective in inhibiting threatening behavior. The dog then starts to growl or bite, which it quickly learns is an effective way to protect items of value. The age of onset is often prior to 16 weeks of age. Initial onset may occur in adulthood in dogs on reducing diets or medication that increases hunger (e.g., corticosteroids) or with medical conditions that increase appetite (e.g., hyperadrenocorticism). When affected puppies are identified early, the progression of the disorder can usually be stopped and the long-term outcome can be positive, at least from the standpoint of management. Most often, resource-holding potential (willingness to fight for an object) is not correlated with status. This can be both a normal desire to maintain valuable possessions and an anxiety-related disorder. It occurs in both males and females and affected dogs may be confident or fearful. Severely affected dogs may guard the entire kitchen or the doorway to the room where the food is prepared. Some dogs may bury items in the cushions of the couch and then guard the couch or living room.

Management and treatment

All situations in which the dog guards should be avoided by closing doors and restricting access to valuable items. For example, if the dog only guards bones the owner should not give the dog bones or give them in a room with a barrier. All family members should avoid interacting with the dog in situations where it has shown aggression. Owners should be instructed to make a trade for a higher-value item in order to get stolen items from their pet before the behavior modification has been completed. Owners may be confused because they may think that they are rewarding the guarding behavior when they make a trade. However, this is not the case. The aggression associated with guarding is often a classically conditioned, anxiety-related behavior which will not increase with positive reinforcement. Once the dog is showing aggression, the opportunity for rational teaching is gone. The owner needs to manage the crisis by trading with the dog and work on the behavior modification when the dog is not aroused or has objects that it will readily relinquish. There is a chance that the dog will learn to find or steal items and bring them to the owner to trade. This behavior is operantly conditioned and can easily be corrected if the owner so chooses with prevention, supervision or interruptions such as with a remote spray collar or head harness with long leash (drag line attached) to interrupt or deter stealing behavior. Owners should never attempt to take items from the dog’s mouth by reaching with their hand, slapping under the chin, blowing in the nose, or prying the mouth open. These practices create situations where the owner is likely to be bitten. Verbal and physical corrections, training with fake hands, or exercises where the food bowl is repeatedly removed are contraindicated as these dogs are generally highly aroused and willing to bite to keep their treasure. In dire situations, if the pet refuses to trade a dangerous or expensive item for a piece of food, Spray Shield (a safe, nontoxic, neutral-pH, citronella spray) can be used to get the pet to relinquish the object. This should be done calmly and casually without looking the dog in the eye or saying anything. Shock collars should not be used.

Behavior modification techniques are the cornerstone of treatment. When the owner approaches the dog and the dog has an item, the owner should either give the dog something better in return or wait until the item is dropped and reward immediately. This type of conditioning teaches the dog that when the owner approaches, bad things don’t always happen. In fact, good things happen when the item is dropped. The owner can actively work on training the “drop” command using items of low value and reinforcing with high-level rewards (see Appendix C, form C.17, client handout #7, printable version available online). The dog should also actively be taught basic control and management tools (e.g., leave it, sit, go to your bed) (see Appendix C, forms C.14 and C.15 and Box 7.2, client handouts, 13, 23 and 25, client handouts #13 and #25, printable versions available online). If the pet growls when someone walks within 1 meter (3 feet) of its bed, family members can walk by at 1.5 meters (4 feet) and toss pieces of meat to the pet. This should be repeated frequently, very gradually moving closer to the pet.

Simple management changes such as securing the trash can, picking up frequently stolen items, feeding the dog in a low-traffic area, more frequent small meals, feeding from food toys (which the dog has previously been trained to drop for rewards), and segregating the dog out of areas where food is prepared or served should be made. Desensitization and counterconditioning can be attempted at a recheck appointment (see prevention, below); however, once owners are accustomed to the management changes and have achieved control, they often don’t need or want to attempt further treatment. If the dog is excessively fearful or anxious or behaviorally abnormal consider concurrent medication (see Box 20.5 and Table 20.4).

Table 20.4 Management and treatment of resource guarding

Goal

Relieve anxiety around resources

Environmental changes and safety

Feed confined in a separate room Do not give valuable resources except during confinement. Consider removing strongly guarded bones, chews or highly favored toys indefinitely Move the dog’s bed to an appropriate and safe area Pick up, lock away, pet-proof, secure containers, close doors to prevent items being stolen Keep the dog away from areas which have been guarded Trade up for items until the owner has completed the behavior modification If necessary, use Spray Shield or leave attached a drag line with head halter to retrieve dangerous or expensive objects Avoid confrontations and physical punishment < div class='tao-gold-member'> Only gold members can continue reading. Log In or Register to continue Share this: Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window) Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Related Related posts: Pet selection and the genetics of behavior Complementary and alternative therapy for behavior problems Pharmacologic intervention in behavioral therapy Terminology, behavioral pathology, and the Pageat (French) approach to canine behavior disorders Stay updated, free articles. Join our Telegram channel Join Tags: Behavior Problems of the Dog and Cat Jul 24, 2016 | Posted by admin in SMALL ANIMAL | Comments Off on Canine aggression Full access? Get Clinical Tree Get Clinical Tree app for offline access Get Clinical Tree app for offline access