The early life of a puppy is marked by a series of developmental stages, each playing an important role in shaping the puppy’s behavior and physical maturation. These stages are categorized as neonatal, transitional, socialization, juvenile, sexual maturity, and social maturity (Scott and Fuller 1965). Understanding the events that occur during these stages and their impacts on a puppy’s future behavior is important so that appropriate care and guidance can be offered to caregivers. Furthermore, it is important to recognize that developmental rates can vary among different breeds, and environmental factors may play a role in influencing genetic expression (Morrow et al. 2015). The diet and health of the mother, or dam, are prenatal conditions that can significantly impact a puppy’s development. Studies in other species have shown that offspring of mothers who experience stressful handling during pregnancy are often more sensitive to stressors (Champagne 2008). These findings highlight the need for a nurturing and stable environment throughout the developmental stages of a puppy’s life, emphasizing the connection between physical, environmental, and emotional factors in their overall growth. The neonatal period, which begins with the birth of a puppy and lasts until about 13 days of age, is a critical phase in their development (Figures 5.1–5.4). During these initial two weeks puppies are dependent on their mother for survival. They are born with closed eyes and ears, which start to open toward the end of this period. At this stage a puppy’s experience of the world is primarily through touch and smell, as their nervous system is still maturing (Houpt 2018; Serpell 2017). In this phase puppies cannot regulate their own body temperature and thus heavily rely on the warmth from their mother and littermates. This warmth, along with physical contact, plays an important role in their early emotional development. The experiences puppies undergo in this period have a lasting impact on their future. Studies have indicated that puppies receiving attentive maternal care are more socially and physically engaged as adults compared to those with less attentive mothers (Foyer et al. 2016). Additionally, puppies that receive gentle human handling from as early as 3 days old are observed to be calmer and more confident at 8 weeks of age (Gazzano et al. 2008). This gentle handling not only affects their behavioral development but also contributes to faster neurodevelopment. This is evidenced by the earlier opening of their eyes and ears, as well as quicker hair growth. Figure 5.1 Newborn puppies spend most of their time eating and sleeping in the first two weeks of life. Source: Christine Calder (book author). Figure 5.2 (a) During the neonatal stage puppies are completely dependent on their mother and each other for warmth. (b) An external heat source can help regulate temperature at this time. This one is warmed in the microwave to a safe temperature before placing it in with the puppies. It is important that they have an option to move away and there are various temperature gradients offered to them. Source: (a) Christine Calder (book author); (b) Rachel Thornton. Figure 5.3 The mother licks to stimulate elimination and will ingest it. This is normal dog behavior. Source: Rachel Thornton. Figure 5.4 Early handling and time spent with humans have many benefits for a puppy’s physical and emotional development. Source: Rachel Thornton. The transitional period in a puppy’s development typically lasts around seven days, beginning as puppies open their eyes around day 13 and concluding when they start responding to sounds, generally by day 20 (Figure 5.5) (Houpt 2018). This stage is marked by notable advancements in visual and auditory abilities, as well as improved muscle coordination. The onset of functioning eyes and ears leads to a significant change in how puppies perceive their environment. Figure 5.5 Eyes start to open at around 10–14 days. Source: Christine Calder (book author). During this period puppies acquire the skills to lap and chew food, eliminate waste independently of their mother’s stimulation, and engage in physical activities like standing, walking, and tail wagging. Social communication behaviors such as growling and interactive play develop during this stage. As puppies become more mobile and explore their environment, their interactions with their mother and littermates grow in complexity. This helps them learn important canine communication skills, including bite inhibition and understanding body language cues, which are fundamental for social interactions among dogs. As puppies increasingly move away from their nesting area, it is an appropriate time to introduce an elimination substrate (Figure 5.6). The ongoing development of their sensory organs makes it beneficial to gradually introduce various sounds and visual stimuli. Giving opportunities for puppies to explore these stimuli at their own pace and avoiding high‐intensity noises helps create a nurturing environment that supports their sensory development without causing undue stress or sensitization. Figure 5.6 (a–c) Housetraining can start as young as two to three weeks, just as the puppies start to move around and eliminate without stimulation from their mother. Setting up elimination areas (large litter pans) can help with this and also helps to keep the whelping and play/exploration area clean. Source: Rachel Thornton. Socialization in puppies involves developing appropriate social behaviors toward their own species (conspecifics) and, more broadly, toward beings of any species while adapting to various environmental stimuli. The sensitive period, beginning at about 3 weeks and lasting until approximately 12–14 weeks of age, is critical for a puppy’s development (Houpt 2018; Serpell 2017). During this time puppies are particularly open to forming preferences and are influenced significantly by external stimuli (Figure 5.7). During the socialization period, puppies start to explore new objects, engage in social play, follow others, and form strong attachments. Lack of adequate socialization in this phase may lead to puppies developing fearfulness toward unfamiliar humans or situations (Scott and Fuller 1965). The focus should be on the quality of experiences, ensuring they are positive and suitable for the puppy’s developmental stage, and avoiding overwhelming them with excessive stimulation (Figures 5.8 and 5.9). Weaning typically starts around 5 weeks of age and ends between 7 and 10 weeks of age and is an important time for learning social behaviors, especially with other dogs. Puppies separated from their dam and litter before 6 weeks of age tend to show more fear and undesirable behaviors as adults than those who stay with their litter until at least 8 weeks of age (Pierantoni et al. 2011; Slabbert and Rasa 1993). Sudden weaning and abrupt separation from littermates can result in long‐term behavioral issues. The juvenile period follows the end of the socialization period, which typically occurs around 14 weeks of age and extends until sexual maturity, at around 6 months of age. This stage is marked by rapid physical growth and building curiosity about the puppy’s environment. During this phase puppies may exhibit behaviors that seem challenging to their caregivers, such as chewing on furniture or shoes, jumping on people, or seemingly ignoring previously learned cues. These actions are normal canine behaviors and a natural part of their exploratory and learning process. The adolescent period in puppies, spanning from 6 to 12 months of age, marks a significant transition as they reach sexual maturity. Notably in larger and giant breeds the onset of sexual maturity may be delayed. This stage is often likened to the teenage years in humans and brings its own set of unique challenges for both puppies and their caregivers. As puppies reach sexual maturity, certain sexually dimorphic behaviors may become more pronounced. These behaviors can include urine marking, displays of aggression, roaming tendencies, and mounting. Figure 5.7 (a–h) Establishing a mentally stimulating and enriching environment while still living with the breeder helps set puppies up for success, builds confidence, and eases the transition into a new home. Source: (a–c) Rachel Thornton; (d–h) Christine Calder (book author). Figure 5.8 Confinement training can start with puppies while still at the breeder’s house. Source: Rachel Thornton. Figure 5.9 (a, b) Opportunities to explore different surfaces and environments help to build confidence and familiarity. Source: (a) Rachel Thornton; (b) Christine Calder (book author). During the adolescent phase puppies may exhibit increased independence and can sometimes challenge established boundaries. Behaviors such as excessive barking, ignoring cues, or attempting to escape from the yard are not uncommon. Caregivers should be prepared for these changes in behavior during the adolescent period and continue to provide consistent training and guidance. As dogs transition out of adolescence and into social maturity, usually around 2–3 years of age, they exhibit more predictable behavior patterns. However, it is during the latter part of the adolescent period and the onset of social maturity that dogs are most frequently surrendered to shelters or rehomed due to behavioral issues. Understanding and effectively managing these behaviors are critical during this time. The socialization process with a puppy should be begin as soon as possible, and continue as long as the puppy is not fearful (Figure 5.10). The caregiver’s goals and future living environment should be considered in customizing a socialization program, incorporating stimuli relevant to the puppy’s future environment. The main goal of socialization is to help puppies grow into well‐adjusted adults who are comfortable and adapt to various situations and environments. This involves positive introductions to different people, environments, animals, and situations (Figure 5.11). Puppies should explore at their own pace, using treats and toys to enhance experiences. If a puppy becomes overly frightened, the session should end. Figure 5.10 While young, interactions with other animals can help puppies learn appropriate social skills around these animals. Source: lusyaya/Adobe Stock Photos. Figure 5.11 (a, b) New environments, interactions with other animals and car rides should all occur during the critical socialization period. Be sure the puppies are comfortable with these interactions and experiences. Source: (a) Christine Calder (book author); (b) Rachel Thornton. During the socialization process, puppies should be introduced to individuals of varying ages, genders, ethnicities, and appearances, including those wearing different types of clothing. Gentle handling by children helps puppies become comfortable around energetic young individuals. Puppies should be socialized with other dogs and cats with supervision. Playdates with dogs of known vaccination status and various ages facilitate learning social cues and behaviors. This period is also ideal for introducing puppies to other animals they might encounter later in life, such as cats, chickens, horses, and goats (Figures 5.12–5.14). Acclimating a puppy to different environments involves taking them for walks in both urban and rural settings, giving them an opportunity to experience different sights, smells, and sounds. For instance, walking on a busy city street exposes them to cars and crowds, while a hike in the countryside introduces them to wildlife and natural water bodies. Even simple changes like walking on different surfaces such as grass, gravel, or pavement can be beneficial (Figures 5.15–5.17). Figure 5.12 (a) Safety barriers such as fences help protect puppies yet give an opportunity to interact with other dogs. (b) Using strollers and carts gives a puppy an opportunity to be kept safe yet interact with people. Source: Rachel Thornton. Figure 5.13 (a, b) Puppies should have opportunities to interact with other animals they may encounter or be expected to spend time around in the future. Source: Christine Calder (book author). Figure 5.14 (a, b) Introduction to other puppies and adult dogs with known vaccination status gives opportunities for play and to develop critical social skills with other dogs. Source: (a) Christine Calder (book author); (b) Rachel Thornton. Figure 5.15 (a–e) Trips to dog friendly stores and various natural environments provide opportunities for puppies to experience new sights, sounds, smells, and people. Make sure the puppy is comfortable and interactions should not be forced. Source: (a–d) Christine Calder (book author); (e) Rachel Thornton. Figure 5.16 Different surfaces should be introduced including opportunities for swimming, especially if time will be spent near the water later in life. Source: Rachel Thornton. Figure 5.17 The addition of food helps to form a positive conditioned emotional response to situations such as car rides. Source: Rachel Thornton. Acclimating puppies to a variety of sounds is an important part of their socialization process. This involves exposing them to everyday household noises like the vacuum cleaner’s hum, the washing machine’s rhythm, and the doorbell’s chime. Additionally, outdoor sounds such as traffic, sirens, and the noise from construction sites should also be introduced. One effective method for familiarizing puppies with these sounds is to play recorded versions at a low volume initially and then gradually increase the volume. This approach, known as habituation, allows puppies to become accustomed to the sounds in a controlled, nonthreatening way. Alongside this, pairing the sounds with positive experiences such as food or playtime, known as desensitization and counterconditioning, enables puppies to form positive associations with these sounds. By integrating habituation with desensitization and counterconditioning, puppies are encouraged to associate these sounds with enjoyable experiences. This strategy can significantly reduce the chances of puppies developing phobias or anxieties in response to these auditory stimuli later in life. Gentle handling is an important part of behavioral development. Research shows that handling puppies from a young age can have beneficial effects (Figure 5.18). Puppies that are not handled until 7 weeks of age may be more hesitant to approach humans than those handled between 3 and 5 weeks (Freedman et al. 1961). If handling is delayed until 14 weeks these puppies often remain persistently fearful and resistant to handling (Freedman et al. 1961). Regular, careful touching of a puppy’s paws, ears, and mouth helps prepare them for routine experiences such as grooming sessions and veterinary examinations. Handling should always be a positive experience from the puppy’s perspective. The puppy should always have a choice to engage or walk away. Providing treats during the handling process can make it a more enjoyable and rewarding experience for the puppy. This approach not only familiarizes them with being handled but also helps in building trust and a sense of safety around humans (Figure 5.19). Figure 5.18 Early handling helps build trusting relationships with people. Source: Christine Calder (book author). Figure 5.19 (a, b) Gentle handling helps a puppy to feel more comfortable and prepare them for the future. Puppies should always have the option to leave if they choose. Source: (a) Christine Calder (book author); (b) Rachel Thornton. During the socialization process, to minimize disease, puppies should not be exposed to areas frequented by unvaccinated dogs. Socialization classes provide an opportunity for a safe and healthy learning environment while minimizing the risk for disease transmission (Duxbury et al. 2003; Stepita et al. 2013). All puppies should be healthy and up to date on their vaccination requirements to attend. For some puppies, especially those who seem overwhelmed by mild stimuli, the socialization plan should be modified. Fear should not be ignored or underestimated in young puppies. Unlike some developmental phases, puppies are unlikely to naturally “get over” their fears without intervention (Godbout and Frank 2011). When fear in puppies is profound, persistent, and still evident at 12 weeks of age, seek the expertise of a board‐certified veterinary behaviorist. Puppy kindergarten classes provide a structured environment for puppies to learn basic behaviors and an opportunity to socialize with other dogs and people. These classes also provide an opportunity for caregivers to learn about dog behavior, training techniques, and ways to effectively communicate with their pets. Housetraining a puppy can be straightforward if caregivers diligently follow five key steps: supervision, frequent elimination opportunities on a schedule, cleaning up soiled areas, avoiding punishment, and rewarding the puppy as they complete voiding. To maximize housetraining success, adult supervision is a necessity. Caregivers must be continually aware of their puppy’s location and activities. If direct supervision is not possible, the puppy should be confined to a safe area. Frequent trips to a designated toileting spot out the same door and to the same area, preferably on a leash, helps establish a routine. Puppies typically need to go outside after waking up, during and after vigorous play (approximately every 15 minutes), and within 15–30 minutes after eating. Avoiding free feeding helps predict this timeframe. If the puppy does not eliminate during a trip outside and it has been an hour or two since their last elimination, they should be returned to their safe space where an alternative elimination area is available, like a litter box with appropriate substrate (turf or pellets) or a puppy pad. After 10–15 minutes return to the elimination area for another opportunity to eliminate and receive reinforcement.
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Setting Puppies Up for Success
Developmental Periods of Behavior with Puppies for Neonatal Period through Social Maturity
Neonatal Period (0–2 Weeks)
Transitional Period (3 Weeks)
Socialization Period (4–14 Weeks)
Quality over Quantity in Socialization
Long‐Term Effects of Early Separation
Juvenile Period (3–6 Months)
Adolescent Period (6–12 Months)
Social Maturity (2–3 Years)
Socialization: Understanding the Concept
Goals of Socialization
Introducing Puppies to People
Meeting Other Animals
Acclimating to Different Environments
Familiarization with Various Sounds
Gentle Handling
Safety and Vaccination
Adjusting the Socialization Plan
Puppy Kindergarten Classes
Setting Puppies Up for Success
Housetraining
Scheduled Elimination Opportunities
Alternative Elimination Area
Rewarding Good Behavior
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