The peafowl has long been treasured for its great beauty. It is the Indian blue peafowl species, which originated in Asia, that is the most depicted of all the peafowl species in both art and literature. The Indian blue peafowl is also the species most dispersed throughout the world. It was hypothesized that the peafowl was brought to Europe during the March of Alexander the Great [1]. However, during this same time period, the Greek philosopher Aristotle referred to the peafowl as a common bird in Greece so many scientists believe that the peafowl was most likely introduced in 450 BCE [1]. Hence, it is thought that the peafowl became established in the Roman Empire and ancient Greece. Peafowl are also referenced in Biblical times and reports of peafowl being brought in ships to King Solomon demonstrate the trade of this beautiful bird [1, 2]. In ancient Rome, the peafowl was a great delicacy as a roast and served in its own feathers [3]. This trend continued to England and the rest of the European continent.

19.1 Peafowl as a Gamebird

Many individuals would not even imagine that the ornate peafowl was hunted as a gamebird. These ornamental birds with beautiful tail feathers originated on the Asian continent, where they are still admired in many Asian countries. The peafowl is revered as the national bird in India. However, as their distribution spread globally with trade routes, populations of these beautiful and exotic birds became established on many other continents. Some of the earliest records of peafowl being a gamebird were documented in medieval England. Being far from its native habitat, it was considered an exotic creature and was valued by wealthy individuals and considered a luxury item where it was featured and served in elaborate feasts for these wealthy households. The preparation for serving peafowl entailed the freshly killed bird being skinned while keeping intact its head and neck, along with its body feathers and elaborate tail feathers. After the bird was cooked, these parts were replaced on the cooked bird to resemble a live peacock. The dish was referred to as peacock pie and can be viewed in oil paintings such as the 1627 “Still Life with Peacock Pie” by Dutch artist Pieter Claesz (Figure 19.1) at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC (USA) [4]. This artwork provided documentation that peafowl were indeed served as a meal.

As one of the authors (TYM) experienced, such a display was recreated in the Bracebridge Dinner, a long‐held annual Christmas tradition, at the historic Ahwahnee Hotel in Yosemite National Park (California, USA). This event recreates a seventeenth‐century English manor where guests are invited to the Christmas celebration with a menu featuring “peacock pie” [5]. Hence, in medieval Europe, the peafowl was hunted as a gamebird for special feasts. While peacock was not served, the Bracebridge Dinner guests had a live experience of what these magnificent feasts may have entailed as these special dishes were presented in all their natural beauty (Figure 19.2).

Currently, peafowl are not commercially raised in large numbers for hunting purposes, as with other gamebirds. However, some private aviculturists do breed them to develop new color varieties and to help perpetuate more threatened species, like the green peafowl. Other private owners also harvest the feathers and utilize eggs and meat, which can be sold in small‐scale gourmet exotic meat markets.

While there are peafowl enthusiasts who raise and breed birds in captivity, most public interactions with peafowl are with the free‐living birds. In fact, some once captive populations have escaped and have been successful living a semi‐feral life. Some populations have been overly successful, and with no predators in neighborhood communities, their populations have increased to nuisance levels. In some of these neighborhoods, relocation programs have been established by local city and county offices to try to reduce the population.

19.2 Taxonomic Relationship to Other Galliformes

Peafowl belong to the order of birds known as Galliformes. Galliformes are characterized as grain‐eating ground‐dwelling birds that hatch precocial chicks. Within this Galliformes order is the Phasianidae family which are heavy ground‐dwelling birds that include pheasants, partridges, junglefowl, chickens, turkeys, Old World quail, and peafowl. This Phasianidae family is further subdivided into two subfamilies: Perdicinae and Phasianinae. The Perdicinae subfamily includes the partridges, Old World quail, and francolins, while the Phasianinae subfamily includes the pheasants, tragopans, junglefowl, and peafowl. Within the Phasianinae subfamily, peafowl belong to either the Pavo or Afropavo genera. There are two species in the genus Pavo: the Indian blue peafowl (Pavo cristatus), also known as the common blue or Indian peafowl, and the green peafowl (Pavo muticus), also known as the green‐necked peafowl or Java green peafowl. The Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis), also known as the African peafowl, is the only species within the genus Afropavo and is the only peafowl species not originating from Asia but rather from Africa.

19.3 Peafowl Terminology

Peafowl is the general term used to refer to birds of the Pavo or Afropavo genera. The males are referred to as peacocks and have ornate elongated tail (or train) feathers that end in iridescent eye‐like patterns (ocelli). Both males and females possess a crest of feathers on the head. While in colloquial language, the term peacock is used when referring to all members (male or female) of the genus, the term should only be used when referring to the male. Females are called peahens, and the chicks are known as peachicks. A group of peafowl is known as an ostentation or a muster.

19.4 Peafowl Behavior

Peafowl congregate in small social groupings. These groupings usually include one peacock with 2–5 hens and their peachicks [6]. In captive settings, one peacock is usually paired with two or three hens. While peafowl can be kept with other avian species, it is important to introduce them at the same time and at a young age. The Indian blue peafowl, of all the peafowl species, are more likely to tolerate other poultry species [6]. However, it should be noted that peafowl tend to be more aggressive than other poultry species and can dominate the feeders due to their larger size, especially when feed supply or feeder space is limited.

Besides being known for their beautiful tail feathers, Pavo peafowl are also known for their distinct male vocalizations that are especially prominent in the mating season. The calls of the green peafowl are slightly less shrieking (lower pitched) than the Indian blue peafowl, which are likened to the call of a shrieking cat’s meow. Green peafowl tend to be more aggressive toward other birds and possibly their human caretakers as well. Males of the green peafowl should be kept separate if they are kept in total confinement. Their sharp spurs can cause injury to other males so caution must be taken when working with this species.

Lukanov [1] referenced the ancient Hindu description of the peafowl as follows: “A peacock has the feathers of an angel, the voice of the devil, and the walk of a thief.” The “walk of a thief” demonstrates the ever‐observant behavior of the peafowl in its environment and this is based on a unique physiological feature of the peafowl.

Peafowl tend to be active in the early morning, then take shelter during the mid‐day sun. As evening approaches, they will tend to congregate before seeking shelter in higher branches at night. It has been reported that wild peahens can carry their peachicks on their back as they fly to higher branches at night.

19.5 Unique Anatomical and Physiological Features

Peafowl are characterized by their crested head feathers and, in the male, the colorful elongated tail (train) feathers terminating in eye‐like structures known as ocelli. During the mating season, male peacocks will fan their tail in the hope of attracting a female. Peafowl also have long necks and strong legs, and are one of the largest and heaviest flying birds on earth. While peafowl possess similar anatomical and physiological features to some of the most common Galliformes like the chicken and turkey, they do have unique anatomical and physiological features. Figure 19.3 depicts some of the anatomical parts of the peafowl.

It should be noted that peafowl show a near‐absence of the vestibuloocular reflex which allows them to move their heads as quickly as their eyes [7]. Hence, when their gaze shift is greater, their head movement is more substantial than eye movements, as when scanning the environment for predators. However, for small gaze shifts, it is more efficient for the peafowl to utilize only eye movements. This finding accounts for some of the characteristic behavior and movements noticed in peafowl and allows them to be successful in the feral state by being alert to predator presence. Their quick head movements allow them to effectively scan the environment for potential danger.

The tail feathers are one of the unique features of the peafowl and the main feature when one imagines the species. In fact, the commonly used expression “proud as a peacock” arose because the peacock was a symbol of vanity and ostentation as they display their fanned‐out tail feathers. This expression was used as early as the fourteenth century when the English poet Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in his work The Reeve’s Tale that “As any peacock he was proud” in 1387 [8]. Burgess [9] reported that the peacock tail feathers do not function in flight or in thermoregulation but have the sole purpose of providing an attractive display. This was a great puzzle to evolutionist Charles Darwin who struggled with the thought that the elaborate long train feathers of the peacock appeared to be a handicap for survival [10]. However, the display of the tail feathers plays an important role in peafowl courtship and ultimately, the success of the individual to propagate its genes.

In the courtship dance, peacocks will raise their upper tail covert feathers to frame themselves and quiver their fanned tail feathers to attract potential peahens. There is evidence that the larger and/or more elaborate the male train, the more it may signal high genetic quality and good genes [11]. The fanning and subsequent vibrations of the male tail feathers is one of the unique behavioral aspects of the peacock. It should be noted that not only the tail feathers but the crest feathers may also signify the conditioning of the peacock [12]. Kane et al. [13] reported that in the crest feathers on the Indian Blue peafowl were coupled to filoplumes, the small feathers known to function as mechanoreceptors, and that the vibrational resonant frequencies of peafowl crests were closely related with the frequencies used during the male train‐rattling and female tail‐rattling displays. This unique feature of the peafowl’s crest feathers was not observed in other feathers of similar length on the peafowl or in the other bird orders with crest feathers (Victorian crowned pigeon, Himalayan monal, golden pheasants, and yellow‐crested cockatoo) [13]. Thus, the movements of the peafowl crest are well matched to the train’s mechanical sound. When the tail feathers are not erected into a fan, this train trails behind the bird.

An adult peacock has an average of 200 tail feathers that are shed and regrown annually. What appears to be the ocelli‐laden tail is really the upper tail coverts. The true tail feathers only number around 20 and all end with ocelli. All these iridescent feathers can influence mating success [14]. Burgess [9] reported that of these 200 upper tail covert feathers, about 170 are “eye” feathers. The remainder of the tail feathers are known as “T” feathers based on the shape they form. The “T” feathers complement the “eye” feathers because the “T” feathers’ profile is the inverse of the shape of the “eye” feather and the “T” feathers form a beautiful border to the fanned‐out “eye” feathers [8].

For the tail feathers, in the Indian blue peacock, the second‐year male resembles the adult male except the tail is shorter and lacks ocelli. These tail feathers continue to increase in size until the fourth year. In the green peacock, like the Indian blue peacock, second‐year males are like the adult males, but their train feathers lack ocelli.

19.6 Species, Subspecies, and Hybrids

In the Pavo genera, there are two species: the Indian blue peafowl and the Java green peafowl. The Indian blue peafowl is the most common worldwide and is a species of least concern for conservation purposes. However, the green peafowl is considered a threatened species, and the majority are held in zoological institutions or private collections [15].

The Indian blue peafowl (P. cristatus), also known as the common blue peafowl or Indian peafowl, is the most common peafowl held in captivity and in feral populations. In its original distribution, it has been reported in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh but has been established throughout the world in a semi‐feral state [15]. The Indian blue peafowl has a very distinctive crest, composed of fanned‐out wire‐like feathers topped with bluish flattened ends. Males have a blue head, neck, and chest feathers with tan and black barred shoulders and green and bronze feathers throughout their bodies (Figure 19.4). There is sexual dimorphism and, unlike the male, the female is brown in coloration, has some green feathers in its neck, and a characteristic white belly [15]. The drab color of Indian blue peahens allows them to blend into the environment as they tend to rest in the shade during the hot midday sun (Figure 19.5).

From beak to tail‐head, peafowl males are approximately 3.5–4 ft in body length (100–130 cm) [15]. The smaller females lack a long tail (train). In males, these long tail feathers can be up to 5–6 ft in length (150+ cm) [15]. Females have a brown head ornament (noodle) while the male’s head ornament color is the same as its tail (blue and green) [15].

Color mutations have been reported in the Indian blue peafowl. Pavo cristatus nigripennis, known as the black‐shouldered (“black‐winged”) color mutation, is a subspecies of the Indian blue peafowl (Figures 19.6a,b). Males will be melanistic in color whereas the females are creamy white in color (Figure 19.6c). Other color mutations of the Indian blue peafowl include pied and white (eyed) varieties. Interbreeding of these color and/or pattern mutations has resulted in many color and pattern variations (Figure 19.6d).

The Indian blue peafowl has been interbred with the Java green peafowl, which is a threatened species, to produce a fertile hybrid known as the Spalding peafowl. It was named after a breeder in California (USA) who first interbred these two species, the hardier Indian blue, which was more tolerant of cold weather, and the Java green peafowl. The resulting hybrid has a more defined green metallic color around the neck. The original cross was a Java green peacock and a black‐shouldered peahen to form the first Spalding peafowl [16]. It should be noted that the male Spalding peacock is similar in color to the Java green peacock but has a much lighter but larger body with slightly longer legs than the Indian blue peacock. The Spalding peahen is more colorful with a green metallic color around the neck and darker body feathers compared to the drab Indian blue peahen [16]. As with the Indian blue peafowl, Spalding peafowl can have multiple color variations. Since they are a hybrid, a Spalding hybrid bred to another Spalding hybrid has characteristics dependent on the percentage of Java green peafowl genes present in the hybrids used.

The green peafowl (Pavo multicus), also known as the Java green peafowl or green‐necked peafowl, originated in Asia and is the largest species of pheasant (Figures 19.7). There are three reported subspecies of the green peafowl: Burmese peafowl (Pavo multicus spicifer), which was originally reported in India, Bangladesh, and Burma and is thought to be extinct in the wild; Indo‐Chinese peafowl (P. m. imperator), which was originally reported in Burma, Thailand, China, Vietnam, and Laos; and Java peafowl (P. m. multicus), which was originally reported in Java, Indonesia [15]. The green peafowl is listed as endangered by the IUCN [14]. Its population decline in the wild is attributed to habitat destruction as a result of the increase in palm oil plantation development on their habitats [17]. This peacock has yellow and blue skin on the face. Its head and neck are metallic green with most of the body contour feathers in a bluish‐green and some bronze coloration and a dark green belly [15]. Unlike the sexual dimorphism between the sexes in the Indian blue peafowl, green peafowl are similar in coloration. The female has the same color pattern as the male but is more muted in color (Figure 19.8). The female does not have dark bars on the tail feathers. Peachicks are darker gray‐brown in color compared to Indian blue peachicks [15]. While the Indian blue peafowl is more tolerant of colder temperatures, the Java green peafowl prefers warm weather and is prone to frostbite [18].

The green peafowl differs from the Indian blue in two distinct features. Green peafowl have crest feathers that are shafted rather than fanned out. In addition, there is a white stripe above the eye and a crescent‐shaped white patch below the eye. The facial skin has a characteristic double striped pattern that blends from white to light blue with a crescent‐shaped ear skin patch of orangish yellow. There is a dark triangular feathered patch in the cranial antorbital areas that is blue green in the male but brown in the female [15]. Compared to the Indian blue peafowl, green peafowl are slightly lighter but their tail covert feathers are longer. Males range from 5 to 9 ft in length (including trains) while the female is about 3 ft in length from beak to tail [15]. A quick way to differentiate between the Indian blue peafowl and green peafowl is to observe the crest feather shape and the facial coloration.

The Congo peafowl (A. congensis), also known as the African peafowl, is the only peafowl species originating in Africa (Figure 19.9). The Congo peafowl is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN [14, 17]. It is rare to view these birds in the wild due to their elusive nature and they were only first described in the early twentieth century [17]. Information on their natural history is still scarce. They are vulnerable due to their use in the bush meat trade and the destruction of their habitat due to agriculture and political conflicts [17]. The Congo peafowl is usually found in zoological collections and is usually housed in pairs. Birds found in zoos are the descendants of the original pair that was obtained in the wild and first housed at the Antwerp (Belgium) Zoo in 1962 [17].

19.6.1 Varieties and Genetic Mutations

Since the peafowl has been domesticated for centuries, people have been intrigued with the multiple patterns and/or color variations that are possible. Extensive breeding studies have been performed to explain these variations, which are all reported as originating in the Indian blue peafowl. There are no current reports of any mutations in the wild‐type Java green peafowl or the Congo peafowl.

There are three main mutations in the feather pattern described in peafowl and all are reported in the Indian blue peafowl [3, 19, 20]. One mutation is the black‐shoulder (black‐winged) mutation in which the barred pattern found on the wings of peacocks are not present but are melanistic [20]. Other pattern mutations are the pied and white (eyed) mutations [3, 19]. A pied mutation is when the peafowl’s colored feathers are replaced by white feathers [3, 19

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