Pamidronate Disodium

pam-ih-droe’nate dye-soe’dee-um

Functional Classification: Antihypercalcemic

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Bisphosphonate drug. Drugs in this class include pamidronate, etidronate, tiludronate, and pyrophosphate. These drugs are a group of drugs characterized by a germinal bisphosphonate bond. They slow the formation and dissolution of hydroxyapatite crystals. Their clinical use resides in their ability to inhibit bone resorption. These drugs decrease bone turnover by inhibiting osteoclast activity, inducing osteoclast apoptosis, retard bone resorption, and decrease rate of osteoporosis. Inhibition of bone resorption is via inhibition of the mevalonate pathway. Pamidronate, like other bisphosphonates, is not metabolized by the liver. It is primarily eliminated by the kidneys in animals, and preferentially remains in the bone for prolonged periods.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Pamidronate, like other bisphosphonate drugs, is used in people to treat osteoporosis and treatment of hypercalcemia of malignancy. In animals, pamidronate is used to decrease calcium in conditions that cause hypercalcemia, such as cancer and vitamin D toxicosis. It is helpful for managing neoplastic complications and pain associated with pathologic bone resorption. It also may provide pain relief in patients with pathologic bone disease and may reduce glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Experimental work performed in dogs has shown it to be effective for treating cholecalciferol toxicosis, but it did not prevent decreases in renal function. After treating for hypercalcemia in dogs, the duration of effect was 11 days to 9 weeks (median 8.5 weeks). Some bisphosphonates, such as pamidronate, have been used to treat navicular disease in horses, but this work is only preliminary.

Precautionary Information

Instructions for Use

For intravenous infusion, dilute in fluid solution (0.9% saline) and administer over 2 hours. (Dilute 30 mg pamidronate in 250 mL fluids.) Infusion can be repeated every 7 days. Although the SQ route is listed for some veterinary applications, it is not recommended and IV infusion is the preferred route.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

Monitor serum calcium and phosphorus. Treatment of vitamin D toxicosis with pamidronate may result in decreased renal function. Monitor urea nitrogen, creatinine, urine-specific gravity, and food intake in treated animals.

Formulations

Pamidronate is available in 30-, 60-, and 90-mg vials for injection and 1 mg/mL in single-use vials for injection.

Stability and Storage

Store in a tightly sealed container, protected from light, and at room temperature. Vials may be diluted in fluid solutions (e.g., 250 mL 0.9% sodium chloride) and infused over 2 hours or as long as 24 hours. Diluted solutions are stable for 24 hours at room temperature.

Large Animal Dosage

No doses have been reported for large animals.

Regulatory Information

Withdrawal times are not established for animals that produce food. For extralabel use withdrawal interval estimates, contact FARAD at 1-888-USFARAD (1-888-873-2723).

Pancrelipase

pan-kreh-lye’pase

Trade and Other Names: Viokase, Pancrezyme, Cotazym, Creon, Pancoate, Pancrease, and Ultrase

Functional Classification: Pancreatic enzyme

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Pancreatic enzyme. Pancrelipase provides lipase, amylase, and protease. Pancrelipase is a mixture of enzymes (lipase, amylase, and protease) obtained from the pancreas of pigs. These enzymes enhance digestion of fats, proteins, and starches in the upper duodenum and jejunum. They are more active in alkaline environment. There are coated and uncoated tablets. The uncoated tablets are not as bioavailable because degradation may occur in the acid of the stomach. Each milligram contains 24 units lipase, 100 units amylase, and 100 units of protease activity.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Pancrelipase is used to treat pancreatic exocrine insufficiency. It provides enzymes lacking for digestion. It should be administered before meals. It is inactivated in gastric acid and should be administered with a drug to suppress stomach acid (e.g., H₂-receptor blocker or proton pump inhibitor [PPI]) to improve activity.

Instructions for Use

Mix pancrelipase with food when administering approximately 20 minutes prior to feeding. After successful results are obtained, the dose may be reduced gradually to identify the minimum effective dose. Pancreatic enzymes are more effective if administered with acid-suppressing drugs (H₂ blockers, PPIs, bicarbonate, or some antacids). If delayed-release capsules are used (granules), do not crush. Different brands have varying activity. If switching from one brand to another, not all products will result in the same therapeutic results.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

No specific monitoring is necessary.

Formulations

Pancrelipase is available in a composition of 16,800 units of lipase, 70,000 units of protease, and 70,000 units of amylase per 0.7 g. It is also available in capsules and tablets. Various formulations contain a variety of activity. For example, Viokase powder contains 16,000 units/70,000 units/70,000 units (lipase/protease/amylase) per 0.7 g of powder. Tablets range from 8000/30,000/30,000 units (lipase/protease/amylase) to 11,000/30,000/30,000 units (lipase/protease/amylase) per tablet.

Stability and Storage

Store in a tightly sealed container, protected from light, and at room temperature. It is inactivated in an acid environment.

Large Animal Dosage

No doses have been reported for large animals.

Regulatory Information

Because of low risk of residues and rapid clearance after administration, no withdrawal time is suggested.

Pancuronium Bromide

pan-kyoo-roe’nee-um bro’mide

Trade and Other Names: Pavulon

Functional Classification: Muscle relaxant

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Neuromuscular blocking agent (nondepolarizing). Pancuronium, like other drugs in this class, competes with acetylcholine at the neuromuscular end plate to produce paralysis. Sensory nerves are intact.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Pancuronium is a paralytic agent used during anesthesia or for mechanical ventilation. It is used primarily during anesthesia or other conditions in which it is necessary to inhibit muscle contractions. It is sometimes used as an alternative to atracurium because it is longer acting.

Instructions for Use

Administer only in situations in which careful control of respiration is possible. Doses may need to be individualized for optimum effect. Do not mix with alkalinizing solutions or lactated Ringer’s solution.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

Monitor patient’s respiration rate, heart rate, and rhythm during use. If possible, monitor the oxygenation status during anesthesia.

Formulations

Pancuronium is available in a 1- and 2-mg/mL injection.

Stability and Storage

Store in a tightly sealed container, protected from light, and at room temperature.

Large Animal Dosage

No doses have been reported for large animals.

Regulatory Information

Withdrawal times are not established for animals that produce food. For extralabel use withdrawal interval estimates, contact FARAD at 1-888-USFARAD (1-888-873-2723).

RCI Classification: 2

Pantoprazole

pan-toe-pray’zole

Trade and Other Names: Protonix

Functional Classification: Antiulcer agent

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Proton pump inhibitor (PPI). Pantoprazole inhibits gastric acid secretion by inhibiting the K⁺/H⁺ pump. Pantoprazole, like other PPIs, has potent and long-acting effects. Acid suppression may have a duration >24 hours in animals. Other PPIs that are administered orally (e.g., omeprazole) have been used in animals. Pantoprazole is the first PPI that can be administered IV. After a dose, it inhibits acid secretion for >24 hours.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Pantoprazole is used for treatment and prevention of GI ulcers. Other PPIs include omeprazole, lansoprazole (Prevacid), and rabeprazole (AcipHex). All PPIs act via a similar mechanism and are equally effective. However, there has been more experience with omeprazole in animals than the other drugs of this group. In dogs, pantoprazole (1 mg/kg) maintained stomach pH >3-4 when administered IV. Pantoprazole, being the only one in an IV formulation, is often used when an intravenous drug is preferred for treatment.

Instructions for Use

For treating GI ulcers, administer once per day for 7-10 days. For gastrin-secreting tumors use higher dose (1 mg/kg) twice daily. Other PPIs include omeprazole (Prilosec), lansoprazole (Prevacid), and rabeprazole (AcipHex). They all act via a similar mechanism and are equally effective. The primary difference with pantoprazole is that it is available in an intravenous dosage formulation and can be mixed with fluid solutions. For intravenous use, mix a 40-mg vial with 10 mL saline and further dilute with saline, lactated Ringer’s solution, or 5% dextrose to 0.4 mg/mL for intravenous infusion. Administer intravenous infusion over at least 15 minutes.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

No specific monitoring is necessary. When treating ulcers, monitor hematocrit or CBC to detect bleeding. Monitor for signs of vomiting and diarrhea.

Formulations

Pantoprazole is available in a 40-mg vial for intravenous use (diluted to 4 mg/mL) and 20- and 40-mg delayed-release tablets. Threre are also granules for oral suspension (40 mg), which have been mixed with apple juice or applesauce for administration in people.

Stability and Storage

Store in a tightly sealed container, protected from light, and at room temperature. Do not freeze reconstituted solutions. Once diluted for intravenous use, it is stable for 12 hours.

Small Animal Dosage

Dogs and Cats

• 0.5-0.6 mg/kg once daily PO.

• Intravenous administration (24 hours): 0.5-1 mg/kg IV infusion over 24 hours. This dose may be delivered in 2 or 15 minutes (see below).

• Intravenous administration (2 or 15 minutes): First flush IV line. Administer pantoprazole via IV line with dextrose 5% injection, sodium chloride 0.9% injection, or Ringer’s lactate injection. For 2-minute infusion mix 40 mg of powder with 10 mL of sodium chloride 0.9% injection for a final concentration of 4 mg/mL. Infuse 1 mg/kg dose over 2 minutes. For 15-minute infusion, mix 40-mg vial with 10 mL sodium chloride 0.9% injection. Then further admix this solution with 100 mL of dextrose 5% injection, sodium chloride 0.9% injection, or Ringer’s lactate injection to a total volume of 110 mL, producing a solution with a final concentration of approximately 0.4 mg/mL. Administer final dose (1 mg/kg) over 15 minutes.

Large Animal Dosage

No dose is reported for large animals. Doses have been extrapolated from human use (0.5 mg/kg q24h IV), and infusion protocols listed previously for small animals have been used.

Regulatory Information

Withdrawal times are not established for animals that produce food. For extralabel use withdrawal interval estimates, contact FARAD at 1-888-USFARAD (1-888-873-2723).

RCI Classification: 5

Paregoric

pare-eh-gore’ik

Trade and Other Names: Corrective mixture

Functional Classification: Antidiarrheal

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Paregoric (opium tincture) is an outdated product used to treat diarrhea. Paregoric contains 2 mg of morphine in every 5 mL of paregoric. The action is via stimulation of intestinal mu-opiate receptors to cause a decrease in intestinal peristalsis.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Paregoric will decrease signs of diarrhea via opiate effects, but its use is somewhat outdated.

Instructions for Use

Use of paregoric has been replaced by more specific products such as loperamide or diphenoxylate.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

No specific monitoring is necessary.

Formulations

For every 5 mL of paregoric, there is 2 mg of morphine.

Stability and Storage

Store in a tightly sealed container, protected from light, and at room temperature.

Small Animal Dosage

Dogs and Cats

• 0.05-0.06 mg/kg q12h PO.

Large Animal Dosage

No doses have been reported for large animals.

Regulatory Information

Withdrawal times are not established for animals that produce food. For extralabel use withdrawal interval estimates, contact FARAD at 1-888-USFARAD (1-888-873-2723).

Paromomycin Sulfate

pare-oe-moe-mye’sin sul’fate

Trade and Other Names: Humatin

Functional Classification: Antiparasitic

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Antibiotic drug of the aminoglycoside class. The mechanism of action of paromomycin is similar to other aminoglycosides: It inhibits the ribosomal 30S subunit with subsequent inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis. Spectrum of activity is similar to other aminoglycosides. However, because paromomycin is administered orally and generally not absorbed systemically, its activity is limited to intestinal pathogens.

Indications and Clinical Uses

The use of paromomycin is limited to intestinal infections. It is not absorbed systemically and should not be used for extraintestinal infections. Paromomycin has been used to treat intestinal infections, such as cryptosporidiosis. The use is based on limited accounts in animals and extrapolation from humans. Efficacy in animals has not been tested in controlled studies.

Instructions for Use

In cats, doses of 125-165 mg/kg every 12 hours have been administered for 5-7 days, PO. However, there are reports in the veterinary literature that these doses have produced toxicity in cats, including renal injury. It is suggested to use lower doses to avoid toxicity and monitor the patient’s renal parameters carefully. When there is a compromised integrity of the intestinal mucosa as may occur with diarrhea, use of paromomycin is discouraged.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

Monitor patient’s renal function, such as urine-specific gravity, serum creatinine, and BUN, during treatment.

Formulations

Paromomycin is available in 250-mg capsules.

Stability and Storage

Store in a tightly sealed container, protected from light, and at room temperature.

Large Animal Dosage

No doses have been reported for large animals.

Regulatory Information

Withdrawal times are not established for animals that produce food. Although not absorbed systemically to a large extent, it is expected that concentrations may persist in the kidneys, producing long, extended withdrawal times for slaughter.

Paroxetine

par-oks’eh-teen

Trade and Other Names: Paxil

Functional Classification: Behavior modification

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Antidepressant drug. Paroxetine, like other drugs in this class, is classified as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). It resembles fluoxetine (Reconcile, Prozac) in action. Its mechanism of action appears to be via selective inhibition of serotonin reuptake and downregulation of 5-HT₁ receptors. SSRI drugs are more selective for inhibiting serotonin reuptake than the tricyclic antidepressant drugs (TCAs).

Indications and Clinical Uses

Paroxetine, like other SSRI drugs, is used to treat behavioral disorders such as compulsive disorders (canine compulsive disorder), anxiety, and dominance aggression. In cats it has been effective for decreasing urine spraying.

Instructions for Use

Dosing recommendations are empirical. Paroxetine has been used for conditions similar to what has been treated with fluoxetine (Prozac, Reconcile). In cats, the small tablet size has made it easier to administer convenient doses, compared to chewable tablets or other drugs available in capsules. Paroxetine has caused constipation in some animals, and veterinarians may administer a feline laxative for the first week of therapy to avoid problems.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

Use in animals has been relatively safe, and one should only monitor behavior changes.

Formulations

Paroxetine is available in 10-, 20-, 30-, and 40-mg tablets and 2-mg/mL oral suspension.

Stability and Storage

Stable if stored in manufacturer’s original formulation. Although paroxetine has been compounded for veterinary use, the potency and stability has not been evaluated for compounded products.

Large Animal Dosage

No doses have been reported for large animals.

Regulatory Information

Do not administer to animals intended for food.

RCI Classification: 2

Penicillamine

pen-ih-sill’ah-meen

Trade and Other Names: Cuprimine and Depen

Functional Classification: Antidote

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Penicillamine is also called 3 mercaptovaline. It is a chelating agent for lead copper, iron, and mercury. When used to treat copper toxicity, it helps to solubilize copper in the cells to allow for more rapid urinary excretion. Treated animals should have increased copper urinary excretion. Other drugs that have been used as chelating agents include tetrathiomolybdate, trientine, and zinc. Penicillamine also has anti-inflammatory properties. It inhibits collagen cross-linking by making it more susceptible to enzyme degradation. This antifibrotic property may contribute to its positive effect for treating animals with hepatitis.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Penicillamine has been used in people to treat rheumatoid arthritis. In animals it is used primarily for treatment of copper toxicity and hepatitis associated with accumulation of copper. Treatment duration for animals with copper-storage hepatic disease may require 2-4 months. It also has been used to treat cystine calculi. Although it may inhibit collagen and reduce fibrosis in patients with hepatic disease, this effect has been disappointing in clinical patients. There is no clear demonstration that it is efficacious for this indication.

Instructions for Use

Administer on an empty stomach (2 hours before meals).

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

Monitor liver biochemistry tests during treatment. Monitor metal concentrations if used to treat intoxication.

Formulations

Penicillamine is available in 125- and 250-mg capsules and 250-mg tablets.

Stability and Storage

Store in a tightly sealed container, protected from light, and at room temperature. Penicillamine is soluble in water. Preparations of penicillamine in a suspension for oral use have been combined with syrups and flavorings and were stable for 5 weeks.

Small Animal Dosage

Dogs and Cats

• 10-15 mg/kg q12h PO.

• Doberman pinschers: use 2500 mg q12h PO.

Large Animal Dosage

Horses and Cattle

• 10-15 mg/kg q12h PO.

Regulatory Information

Cattle withdrawal time: 21 days meat; 3 days milk.

Penicillin G

Trade and Other Names: Penicillin G potassium or sodium, Penicillin G benzathine (Benza-Pen), Penicillin G, Procaine, and generic Penicillin V (Pen-Vee)

Functional Classification: Antibacterial

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Beta-lactam antibiotic. Penicillin G is also called benzyl penicillin. Its action is similar to other penicillins. It binds penicillin-binding proteins (PBP) to weaken or cause lysis of the cell wall. Penicillin G is bactericidal with a time-dependent action. An increased bactericidal effect is observed when drug concentrations are maintained above minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values. The spectrum of penicillin G is limited to gram-positive bacteria, anaerobic bacteria, and a few highly susceptible gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Pasteurella spp.). Practically all bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae and beta-lactamase–producing Staphylococcus spp. are resistant. Penicillin sodium or penicillin potassium when injected IV has a half-life of 1 hour or less in most animals. However, the same dose of procaine penicillin given IM may produce more prolonged concentrations and a half-life of 20-24 hours because of slow absorption from the injection site.

Formulations of penicillin G are designed to control the absorption from site of injection. Formulations include:

• Sodium or potassium penicillin G (crystallin penicillin), which is water soluble and can be administered IV or IM. It may also be mixed with fluids for IV administration.

• Penicillin G benzathine, which is insoluble and available as a suspension. It is slowly absorbed from an injection site to produce low but prolonged (several days of) penicillin concentrations. All benzathine penicillin G forms are combined with procaine penicillin G in commercial formulation (1 : 1 ratio).

• Penicillin G procaine is a poorly soluble suspension for intramuscular or subcutaneous administration. It is absorbed slowly, producing concentrations for 12-24 hours after injections.

• Penicillin V, oral penicillin, is not highly absorbed and is narrow spectrum in comparison with other penicillin derivatives.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Penicillin G is administered by injection either IV (potassium or sodium penicillin) or IM (procaine or procaine/benzathine penicillin G). Penicillin G is indicated for treatment of gram-positive cocci that cause respiratory infections, abscesses, and urinary tract infections. Many staphylococci are resistant because of beta-lactamase synthesis. Streptococci are usually susceptible. Other susceptible organisms include gram-positive bacilli and anaerobic bacteria. Most gram-negative bacilli, especially those of enteric origin, are resistant. Some gram-negative respiratory pathogens such as Pasteurella multocida andMannheimia haemolytica are susceptible.

Penicillin concentrations in the urine are at least 100-fold higher than plasma concentrations in treated animals; therefore, some urinary pathogens may be more susceptible.

Precautionary Information

Adverse Reactions and Side Effects

Penicillin G is usually well tolerated. Allergic reactions are possible. Diarrhea is common with oral doses. Pain and tissue reactions may occur with IM or SQ injections. Formulations of procaine penicillin G contain varying amounts of free procaine (depending on the formulation). Free procaine in the formulation may elicit a CNS reaction after injection in some horses. Large doses of sodium penicillin IV can decrease potassium concentrations.

Contraindications and Precautions

Use cautiously in animals allergic to penicillin-like drugs. Avoid injection volumes greater than 30 mL per site. Administration of the long-acting benzathine form of penicillin G will increase the risk of residues in food-producing animals.

Drug Interactions

No drug interactions have been reported in animals.

Instructions for Use

The approved dose listed on the injectable product labels are outdated and do not reflect the current clinical use of penicillin. Penicillin G benzathine is not recommended for most infections because concentrations are too low to provide therapeutic drug concentrations. A possible exception is for treatment of streptococcal infections. Avoid SQ injection with procaine penicillin G because of tissue injury and food animal residue problems. Penicillin V should be administered on an empty stomach for maximum absorption.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

Susceptibility testing: CLSI break points for sensitive organisms are ≤8 mcg/mL for enterococci and ≤0.12 mcg/mL for staphylococci and streptococci.

Formulations

Penicillin G potassium is available in 5-20 million unit vials. Penicillin G benzathine is available in 150,000 units/mL and is usually combined with 150,000 units/mL of procaine penicillin G suspension. Benzathine penicillin products are not recommended. Procaine penicillin G is available in 300,000 units/mL suspension. Penicillin is one of the few antibiotics that is still measured in terms of units rather than weight in milligrams or micrograms. One unit of penicillin represents the specific activity in 0.6 mcg of sodium penicillin. Thus, 1 mg of penicillin sodium represents 1667 units of penicillin. In some references, an approximate conversion of 1000 units per mg is used.

Penicillin V is available in 250- and 500-mg tablets (250 mg is equal to 400,000 units).

Stability and Storage

Sodium and potassium forms of penicillin G retain their potency for 72 hours at room temperature, but refrigeration is recommended. It is stable for 7 days if refrigerated and retained 90% potency for 14 days. Penicillin potassium or penicillin sodium are freely soluble in water. One gram of penicillin will dissolve in 250 mL of water (4 mg/mL). Degradation and inactivation of penicillin solutions are accelerated at high pH (pH >8), strong acids, or oxidizing agents.

Small Animal Dosage

• Penicillin G potassium or sodium: 20,000-40,000 units/kg q6-8h IV or IM.

• Procaine Penicillin G: 20,000-40,000 units/kg q12-24h IM.

• Penicillin V: 10 mg/kg q8h PO.

Pentastarch

Trade and Other Names: Pentaspan

Functional Classification: Fluid replacement

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Pentastarch is a synthetic colloid volume expander that is used to maintain vascular volume in animals with circulatory shock. It is prepared from hydroxyethyl starch and is derived from amylopectin. There are two hydroxyethyl starch preparations: hetastarch and pentastarch. Hetastarch (6%) has an average molecular weight of 450,000 and colloid osmotic pressure of 32.7. Pentastarch (10%) has an average molecular weight of 280,000 and colloid osmotic pressure of 40. Because hetastarch is a larger molecular weight compound than pentastarch, it tends to remain in the vasculature and prevent loss of intravascular volume and tissue edema. After administration, pentastarch will be retained in the vasculature and prevent loss of intravascular volume and tissue edema. Other colloids used are dextrans (Dextran 40 and Dextran 70). Hetastarch and the dextrans are discussed in other sections.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Pentastarch is used primarily to treat acute hypovolemia and shock. It is administered IV in acute situations. Pentastarch has a duration of effective volume expansion of 12-48 hours. Pentastarch is used in similar situations as hetastarch, but it is used less frequently.

Instructions for Use

Pentastarch is used in critical care situations and is infused via constant rate infusion (CRI). Pentastarch may be more effective and produce fewer side effects than Dextran. Because of lower molecular weight, it can be infused more quickly than hetastarch.

Patient Monitoring and Laboratory Tests

Monitor patient’s hydration status and blood pressure during administration.

Formulations

Pentastarch is available in a 10% injectable solution.

Stability and Storage

Pentastarch is stable in original packaging. Compatible with most fluid administration sets.

Small Animal Dosage

Dogs

• CRI: 10-25 mL/kg/day IV.

Cats

• CRI: 5-10 mL/kg/day IV.

Large Animal Dosage

Horses

• 8-15 mL/kg or delivered as CRI 0.5-1 mL/kg/hr, IV.

No doses have been reported for other large animals.

Regulatory Information

No regulatory requirements.

Pentazocine

pen-taz’oh-seen

Trade and Other Names: Talwin-V

Functional Classification: Analgesic, opioid

Pharmacology and Mechanism of Action

Synthetic opiate analgesic. The action of pentazocine results from its effect as a mu-opiate receptor partial agonist and a kappa-receptor agonist. Most of the sedative and analgesic effects are believed to be caused by the kappa-receptor effects. Pentazocine may partially reverse some mu-receptor agonist effects. Its effects are believed to be similar to buprenorphine or butorphanol, but efficacy is less.

Indications and Clinical Uses

Pentazocine has been used for sedation and analgesia, primarily in horses. However because of the availability of other opioids with better efficacy, the use of pentazocine has declined.

Precautionary Information

Adverse Reactions and Side Effects

Adverse effects are similar to other opioid analgesic drugs and include constipation, ileus, vomiting, and bradycardia. Sedation is common at analgesic doses. Respiratory depression can occur with high doses. Dysphoric effects are possible in some sensitive individuals and in some species (e.g., horses).

< div class='tao-gold-member'>

Only gold members can continue reading. Log In or Register to continue

Fastest Veterinary Medicine Insight Engine

P