DANIEL Q. ESTEP AND SUZANNE HETTS

Animal Behavior Associates, Sun City, Arizona, USA

Historically, concern for the welfare of animals has focused on the relief of suffering through the prevention and treatment of physical illness and the provision of environmental and social necessities such as food, water, shelter, and companionship. Much progress has been made in understanding, alleviating, and preventing animal suffering. But it has only been recently that scientists and animal welfare advocates have begun to address the positive side of animal welfare – how a good quality of life can be facilitated for animals. As McMillan (2002) points out, good mental health is more than just the absence of suffering: it is the attainment of positive emotional states such as happiness and contentment. Research in this area is evolving, and we still do not know as much as we need to about how best to facilitate good animal mental health. In this chapter we will review what is known about how mental health may be influenced – for the better and for the worse – and how that research can be used to create programs that can improve and perhaps even optimize mental health.

We will take a developmental approach because it is known that experiences early in life can have significant effects on behavior and well-being in animals well into adulthood. Positive mental health programs instituted in these early stages of life hold promise to improve long-term well-being efficiently and economically.

10.1 Definitions and Terminology

There is no consensus in the definitions of terms such as mental (or psychological) wellness, well-being, quality of life, mental health, or stress as they apply to nonhuman animals (hereafter referred to as animals). Clark et al. (1997) argue that ‘…arriving at a universally acceptable definition of animal well-being is probably impossible because the way people define quality of nonhuman animal life depends on their personal experiences, views and values’. For many people, welfare and well-being are synonymous. Among the general public, welfare often means well-being, happiness, health, prosperity, comfort, or a state of faring well. Clark et al. (1997) and McMillan (2000) also see quality of life as equivalent to or very close to well-being (for a more extensive discussion of terminology, see Chapter 2, this volume).

10.1.1 Mental health

Our working definition of mental health is that it is a variable condition of the animal characterized by the constantly changing combination of pleasant and unpleasant emotions and variations in the functioning of various mental (cognitive) processes including learning, thinking, remembering, and perceiving. Mental health exists along a continuum from very good to very poor. For our purposes we consider mental health, mental wellness, mental well-being, and mental quality of life as synonymous. We agree with Duncan and Fraser (1997) that any consideration of general welfare must include assessment of mental wellness in addition to those of health and longevity. We assume mental wellness to be just one component of overall wellness.

Mental health is dynamic, not static, and obviously varies and changes over time. For that reason, the time frame for assessments of mental health should be specified. Is it just over a few days in the early development of the animal, just during her declining senior years, or over the entire lifespan? This is rarely specified in the research and writings about mental wellness and is one source of confusion in the evaluation of mental wellness.

10.1.2 Behavioral health and mental health

Behavioral health and mental health are often used interchangeably. The interrelationships among subjective experiences, physiologic processes, and behavior are complex, where each one seems to be influenced by the others. However, animal subjective experiences are not directly accessible to people, and many physiological measures of mental well-being are not available to most people, leaving behavior as the chief indicator of internal states and mental health. Even though behavior is not always a perfect reflection of internal physiological and subjective states, we will use the terms mental health and behavioral health interchangeably for the purposes of this chapter.

10.1.3 Stress and stressors

Stress is another term frequently used in discussions of well-being and is used to describe various physiological and/or behavioral responses to environmental stimulation. It too has no commonly agreed-upon definition. We will use McEwen’s (2000) ‘stress response’, defined as a physiological and/or behavioral response to a perceived threat to homeostasis. Stress responses that are damaging to the animal are called distress and those that are beneficial are called eustress. The environmental stimulus that elicits the stress response is known as the stressor and the outcome of the stress response for the animal is known as coping. Coping can vary from good to poor depending on the change in the animal. McMillan (2005) has discussed the close relationship between stress and emotions, especially distress and negative emotions such as fear and depression. It is not uncommon for researchers and others to use the terms fear and stress (or distress) interchangeably when describing the reactions of animals to certain aversive stimuli. Our working definitions may differ from others.

10.2 Welfare and the Concept of Needs

It has long been recognized that good welfare depends on good health. Good health in turn is dependent, in part, on certain physical needs, such as food, water, and protection from the physical elements, being met. Since the 1980s, research has made clear that mental as well as physical needs must be met to insure good mental well-being and overall welfare. Poole (1992) first directly addressed the idea of behavioral needs, providing a list of five needs for mammals: stability and security in the environment, environmental complexity, some novelty and unpredictability in the environment, opportunities to achieve goals, and companionship. McMillan (2002) and Hetts et al. (2004) incorporated and expanded on Poole’s original list. There is considerable overlap in the lists of McMillan and Hetts et al. although they frame the needs in slightly different ways, including labeling needs behavioral as compared to mental. For the sake of simplicity, in this discussion we will follow McMillan’s (2002) categorization and describe points of departure from Hetts et al. We will use Poole’s and Hetts’ label of behavioral needs rather than mental needs.

It should be obvious that there are species and individual differences (including age and sex) in the importance of specific needs and in the particulars of how they can be satisfied. For example, some breeds of dogs need a great deal of exercise in the form of running and walking, others do not. A 6-month-old foal may have a greater need for social play than a 25-year-old senior horse.

10.2.1 Avoiding negative emotional states

Perhaps the most basic behavioral need is to escape, avoid, or minimize fear, discomfort, boredom, and depression. These unpleasant emotional states can arise from illness such as a cat suffering from arthritis of the hips, an adverse physical environment such as a dog in a hot yard without shade or water, or from social conflict such as a house cat that is repeatedly stalked by a dog or grabbed by a young child. The first two examples overlap with the physical needs of food, water, and a safe environment, but these become behavioral needs when they involve strong emotions in the animal.

10.2.2 Social companionship

The second behavioral need is a need for social companionship. This might be members of the animal’s own species, another nonhuman species, or people. A playful young cat may find a persistent young child a good playmate while an old arthritic cat may find the same child unbearable. The quality of the social experience will differ with the identity of the companion, the context in which the companion is presented, the behaviors exhibited by the companion, and prior experiences of the animal. A dog that has been the victim of an attack by another dog, for example, may be frightened of dogs resembling the attacker. As we will see later, puppies and kittens that have had no experience with people at a young age can find people very frightening during the animals’ adolescence and adulthood. This probably holds true for most other domesticated and wild animals.

10.2.3 Mental stimulation

A third need is for mental stimulation. Most mammals and birds have a self-rewarding curiosity for exploring new places and things that sometimes even extend to the regular re-exploration of familiar places and things. Monotonous, uniform environments with nothing new to see, hear, smell, or feel can create boredom and depression. Giving animals opportunities for foraging for food, the manipulation of food puzzles, or opportunities for investigating novel things are examples of ways to increase mental stimulation.

10.2.4 Predictability

A fourth behavioral need is predictability in both the physical and social environment. Having a predictable mealtime or a predictably friendly social partner can reduce anxiety and create positive anticipation of the coming of the event or individual, which is rewarding and creates positive emotions. Frequent unpredictability in the environment or in behavior of others can create anxiety and distress and make otherwise tolerable situations intolerable. However, a degree of unpredictability in the environment, especially if it involves positively reinforcing events, can enhance mental health by relieving or preventing boredom. Examples can be special walks for a suburban-living dog or unscheduled play for an indoor cat. These events create positive emotions that may relieve boredom and depression.

10.2.5 Controllability

Related to predictability is the ability to exert a degree of control over the environment. Animals that have control over certain variables in their lives such as a dog that can choose when to go outside or stay indoors, can create their own predictability in changing environments. The ability to control the environment and particularly to make choices is very important for many species (for reviews, see Mineka and Hendersen, 1985, and Chapter 6, this volume).

10.2.6 Pleasurable experiences

The sixth behavioral need is the need to generate pleasurable experiences. These experiences may include displaying species-typical behaviors such as opportunities for cats to scratch, for dogs to use their olfactory abilities in scent work, or simply opportunities for social and object play for most species of animals. These actions are self-reinforcing and create their own positive emotions. Other pleasurable experiences may be generated through opportunities to engage in learned behaviors that result in externally delivered reinforcement, such as a cat meowing for food or a dog barking at the back door to go outside. Animals that are prevented from showing sufficient species-typical behaviors, either by punishment delivered by caretakers or because the environment does not facilitate them, often become frustrated and the needs get expressed in behaviors people find unacceptable. This leads to further restrictions or punishment, all resulting in a decrement in mental well-being.

10.3 Development and Mental Welfare

Two classes of factors determine the developmental trajectory of an animal. The first is genetic predispositions and the second is environmental influences. These factors interact from conception and throughout life to create the physical structures, physiological processes, and behavioral actions that comprise the living animal. Both the mental and physical health of an animal are determined by these interactions.

10.3.1 Genetic predispositions

Historically, much more attention has been paid to environmental influences on welfare than on genetic influences. Until very recently, knowledge about how genes influenced behavior and welfare was lacking, and it was easier to study and manipulate environmental factors. The genetic constitution of the animal influences every aspect of structure, physiology, and behavior, and therefore has indirect effects on mental welfare. Genes influence behaviors, emotions, and mental processes that impact welfare in people as well as other animals (see review in Plomin et al., 2008). Behavioral genetic research has begun to examine the interactions and co-actions of genes with environmental factors in the expression of behavior, including mental illnesses. Kim-Cohen et al. (2006) showed that in children a gene involved in the regulation of neurotransmitters interacted with childhood maltreatment to effect antisocial behavior and, consequently, mental health.

In animals it is known that genes can influence a variety of behaviors that either directly contribute to mental wellness or that are indicators of mental wellness. One of the best examples in companion animals is seen in the work of Murphree and colleagues (Murphree et al.,1967; Dykman et al.,1979). They selectively bred two lines of pointer dogs, one for normal or stable behavior and the other for nervous or unstable behavior. In a very few generations the dogs in the nervous line were consistently much more fearful of people than those in the normal line. The finding that the behavior responded to directional selection indicated a genetic influence. From a young age the nervous dogs were fearful of people, and as they got older the fear became more prominent. They were terrified to be in close proximity to people and would freeze statue-like for minutes at a time. Because of their fear, these dogs likely had reduced well-being compared to their nonfearful counterparts.

Mills et al. (1997) point out that genetic selection for or against traits that influence welfare such as fearfulness and adaptability to changing environments may be a powerful way to improve animal well-being. Such change would come slowly if left to traditional selective breeding. In the future, with newer gene splicing and editing techniques (along with a well-developed understanding of gene actions and interactions) very specific changes to an animal’s anatomy and physiology could be quickly made that could improve well-being.

10.3.2 The Development of altricial mammals

Altricial animals are born in a state of relative physical and behavioral under-development. They cannot feed themselves, their abilities to thermoregulate and eliminate are poorly developed, they cannot see or hear, and are capable of very little movement. They are completely dependent upon their mother for survival in the early days after birth. For most altricial mammals, the process of development from conception to adulthood can be divided into several phases:

Because different species develop at different rates, the length of each phase varies from species to species.

10.4 Environmental Influences on Behavior During Early Development

What happens to animals during behavior development not only influences their welfare at the time but often has life-long impacts. Much more is known about environmental influences that produce negative effects on welfare than is known about how to maximize or optimize welfare. We will provide a sampling of this research. Both Serpell et al. (2017) and Dietz et al. (2018) reviewed the development of the behavior of dogs and the effects of early experiences on the development of behavior problems in dogs. Bradshaw et al. (2012) have provided a review of the development of behavior in cats. Historically, it has been thought that events occurring during the socialization phase were critically important for normal social development (Scott and Fuller, 1965). More recent research suggests that environmental and social stimulation during other phases are important in influencing later social behavior and adaptation to environmental challenges.

10.4.1 Prenatal phase

In dogs and cats the gestation or the prenatal phase, is about 63 days long. In rats and mice the development is even faster, with the prenatal phase lasting between 19 and 21 days for domestic mice and 21 and 23 days for domestic rats.

Research on the effects of prenatal influences on behavior has received very little attention in dogs and cats but studies of laboratory rats, mice, and primates have shown significant (though often conflicting) results. In his review of the behavioral results of aversive stimuli on pregnant female rats and mice, Weinstock (2008) found that seven of 14 studies found increases in pup fear later in life, but five found no effects, and two found decreases in fearfulness. Six of 11 studies found that aversive stimulation of pregnant female rats and mice produced deficits in learning and memory, but three others found no effects, and two actually saw improvements in offspring learning and memory.

There were significant differences among the studies in the species and breeds used as well as test methodology. It is thought that the results could be influenced by genetic predispositions, the kind and duration of aversive experience, the timing of the adversity during pregnancy, the behavioral measures taken, and the age at testing of the offspring (Weinstock, 2008).

So, while some prenatal experiences aversive to pregnant females adversely affect the behavior of offspring, others seem to have no effects or even seem to improve later coping abilities and learning and memory. These effects persist at least into adolescence and probably into adulthood.

10.4.2 Neonatal phase

The neonatal phase extends from birth to about 3 weeks of age in dogs and to 2 weeks of age in cats. In rats this phase begins at birth and ends at weaning at about 5 to 6 weeks of age.

There is a rich body of research on the effects of exposure of neonatal animals to various kinds of stimulation including handling and separations from mother and littermates (Serpell et al., 2017). These and other experiences have produced a variety of effects (Wilson et al., 1965; Gazzano et al., 2008a), many of which are contradictory.

Overall, gentle handling results in animals that are less fearful and possibly with enhanced learning ability (Fox, 1978). Handling and mildly aversive stimulation, such as brief social separations, sometimes result in increased resilience to aversive situations and reduced fearfulness in novel situations (de Azevedo et al., 2010). But in other cases, these experiences can sensitize animals to fearful reactions when adults (see review in Serpell et al., 2017).

A variety of variables may influence the results, but the intensity and kind of stimulation seem to be two important ones. Mild stimulation seems to lead to greater resilience to adverse conditions, whereas more intense or longer lasting stimuli seem to have the opposite effect. Resilience to fear-provoking stimuli would appear to contribute positively to welfare in that resilient animals are better able to cope with challenging and aversive environments. Likewise, chronically fearful animals are more likely to have reduced welfare.

It also seems obvious that the quality of maternal care can affect the later behavior of young animals. In general, good maternal care has positive effects on offspring (Foyer et al., 2016; Guardini et al., 2016). Maternal and prenatal experiences have been shown to interact (Wakshlak and Weinstock, 1990). Postnatal handling of rats attenuated the effects of maternal prenatal aversive stimulation when offspring were tested at 8 weeks of age for fearful behavior in an open field and in a maze test.

While a large number of studies have evaluated the effects of prenatal and postnatal experiences on offspring during behavior development, most did not measure effects into adulthood.

10.4.3 Socialization phase in dogs

This developmental period has received the most research attention and arguably has the potential to have greater influence on adult behavior, welfare, and mental health than any other developmental phase. The socialization phase in dogs is from about 3–12 weeks of age and from 2–7 weeks in cats. Research has not defined a socialization phase in rats and mice that corresponds to that of dogs and cats.

Scott and Fuller (1965) included an additional phase for dogs, the transitional phase, between the neonatal phase and the socialization phase that covers several days from about 2 weeks of age and is characterized by rapid physical changes such as opening of the eyes and ears and rapid changes in locomotor abilities. This phase has not been consistently recognized in other altricial mammals.

Research has shown that during the socialization phase it is easiest for young animals to learn their species identity, develop both interspecific and intraspecific social relationships, and practice species-typical behaviors. The preferences for particular types of social partners that have begun during this time are long-lasting. The first attachments young animals form, often referred to as primary socialization, is to their mother and littermates. Because it is so easy for social relationships to form during this phase, young animals readily become attached to most any individuals they spend time with (Cairns and Werboff, 1967).

In a classic study of dog socialization, Freedman et al. (1961) determined that the sensitive period for socialization was between 2.5 and 9–13 weeks of age. Puppies who had no experience with people before 14 weeks of age were fearful of people, uncooperative, and described as ‘wild’.

The onset of fear responses is thought to be the mechanism that ends the sensitive period for socialization in dogs and other species. Genetic differences may influence the timing of sensitive periods in puppies. Morrow et al. (2015) compared the development of fear responses in German shepherd, Yorkshire terrier, and Cavalier King Charles spaniel puppies from 2–12 weeks of age. The onset of increasing fear in Cavalier King Charles spaniels was 2 weeks later than that of German shepherds. Clearly more research is needed to examine individual and breed differences in the timing of sensitive periods.

10.4.4 Socialization phase in cats

Based on results from selectively handling kittens at varying ages prior to 8 weeks of age, the sensitive period for socialization for cats seems to be between 2 and 7 weeks of age (Karsh, 1983; Karsh and Turner, 1988; McCune, 1995). This has practical significance because many cats are weaned between 6 and 8 weeks of age, at the end of the sensitive period. It has been argued that to take advantage of this time of rapid social learning, those who breed or care for neonatal cats should begin socialization experiences while the young are still in their care, prior to weaning.

McCune (1995) found that genetics could interact with social experiences to affect the outcome of early handling during the sensitive period of cats. Kittens born of a father that was friendly to people and that were handled daily from 2–12 weeks of age were more attracted to and friendlier to people than kittens that were handled for the same time but were sired by an unfriendly father. These results may help to explain why some animals remain fearful of people even when they have had good experiences at what would appear to be ideal ages for socialization.

10.4.5 Broader meaning of ‘socialization’

The classic literature on ‘socialization’ refers to social attachments. Scott and Fuller (1965) speculated that location attachment may also develop during this time. For this and other reasons the term ‘socialization’ has come to have a broader meaning referring to animals’ abilities to readily adapt to unfamiliar circumstances and a broad array of events, stimuli, and social interactions. This greatly confuses the communication about the early development of behavior.

From this broader definition have come recommendations that young animals should be exposed to as many unique experiences as possible in order to increase their resilience and adaptability. Yet this assumption has not been generally tested. In one study a group of purpose-bred service dog puppies were provided additional visual, auditory, tactile, and human interaction experiences beyond the broad array already included as part of their enriched rearing environment (Vaterlaws-Whiteside and Hartmann, 2017). At 8 months of age when this group was compared to other dogs who did not receive the enhanced experiences, they were less distressed when left alone, displayed less overall anxiety, and were less distractible.

Some recommendations for socialization experiences advise exposing animals to circumstances they will likely encounter as adults. However, the benefits of this have not been empirically supported. One study provides evidence that adaptation and stimulus generalization can occur as a result of sound exposure during the socialization phase. Chaloupkova et al. (2018) reported that exposing prospective police dog puppies to radio programs daily for the first part of the socialization phase resulted in animals that responded more favorably to loud, sudden sounds when tested at 8 weeks of age. A survey of dog owners in Finland examined the maternal care and early experiences of dogs in relation to behavior problems (Tiira and Lohi, 2015). They reported that dogs that had poor maternal care or fewer early socialization experiences were more likely to later exhibit fears of people and things.

The age at which pups should be removed from their natal home and placed in their new homes is a subject of controversy and conflicting data. Scott and Fuller (1965) recommended rehoming between 7 and 8 weeks of age. Pierantoni et al. (2011) reported that dogs homed between 4 and 5.5 weeks of age were more likely to be fearful and have other behavior problems, including excessive attention-seeking, possessiveness (for food and toys), destructiveness, and excessive barking than those homed at 8.5 weeks of age. Slabbert and Rasa (1993) found pups rehomed at 6 weeks had higher mortality and morbidity and more signs of separation distress than those rehomed at 12 weeks. Conversely, a Finnish study (Jokinen et al., 2017) found dogs homed between 13 and 16 weeks of age showed more fearful and aggressive behavior than those homed from 6–8 weeks old.

Based on the research literature, it is hard to identify a single ‘best time’ for weaning and rehoming dogs. Obvious questions arise about the variations in the breeding environment, maternal care, and genetic differences already discussed. More research is needed but it appears rehoming too early, sometime before 7 weeks, or too late, sometime after 9 weeks, could increase the risks of behavior problems for dogs acquired as pets.

10.4.6 Adolescent phase in dogs

In dogs, the adolescent phase lasts from approximately 12 weeks of age to the time of sexual maturity, which occurs between 6 months to over 2 years of age depending upon the breed of dog and rearing conditions. The adolescent phase in cats is quite variable in length with sexual maturity occurring from about 4 months to a year of age.

The effects of specific experiences on later behavior and welfare have not been as well studied for this phase for dogs and cats, although there are a number of studies of rats and mice. This paucity of research is surprising given the significant physical and behavioral changes that occur during this phase, including the onset of sexual maturity. Based on their clinical experience, professionals from a variety of backgrounds who work with behavior problems in dogs believe that limited social interactions during this phase can contribute to fearful and aggressive behavior directed toward unfamiliar people and dogs, even when the dogs were exposed to other dogs and people during the socialization phase.

Appleby et al. (2002) compared the early histories and environments of dogs with avoidance and aggression problems to those with other behavior problems that had been brought to a clinical animal behavior service. The dogs with avoidant and aggressive behaviors were more likely to have come from pet stores or large commercial breeders and to not have been raised in urban environments between the ages of 3 and 6 months. Their hypothesis was that dogs raised in these environments probably missed important social interactions with people and other animals.

McMillan (2017) reviewed seven studies concerning the adult behavior of dogs born at large commercial breeding facilities. The results indicated a higher than expected frequency of emotional and behavioral problems in dogs from those facilities compared with dogs from other sources. The problems included aggression toward the dog owner’s family members, unfamiliar people, and other dogs, as well as fears of people, other dogs, and nonsocial things and events. There are a number of reasons why dogs from these commercial facilities might have more problems, including genetic predispositions, prenatal aversive events, inadequate maternal care, inadequate socialization experiences, early weaning and maternal separation, events related to transport and sale of the dogs, as well as inadequate owner-related knowledge and care.

A survey of Australian pet owners (Wormald et al., 2016) revealed the average age of exposure of pet dogs to unfamiliar people and other dogs was 13 weeks of age. But the longer owners waited to expose their dogs to other dogs, the lower the probability their dog would show dog-to-dog aggression. They also reported no relationship between the number of other dogs that subject dogs had met and the amount of time spent with other dogs and inter-dog aggression. This appears to be counter to the conventional wisdom that the earlier the exposure to other dogs and the more dogs encountered, the less the likelihood of dog-to-dog aggression problems. One possible explanation is that the more encounters a dog has, the more likely at least one of them will result in a conflict with persisting effects on behavior.

10.4.7 Adolescent phase in rats and mice

There is a body of research investigating the effects of experiences during this phase on the neuroendocrine system and behavior of laboratory rats and mice. Certain experiences during this time, as in the earlier phases, can also produce long-lasting effects on behavior (reviewed in Buwalda et al., 2011). Providing an enriched environment for several weeks to adolescent rats who had been prenatally stressed could attenuate their stress-induced depression during social play (Morley-Fletcher et al., 2003). Social play seems to be important in many species for normal development of adult social skills and behavior.

Adolescent environmental enrichment can compensate for early life adversity, such as repeated maternal separations of neonatal rats (Francis et al., 2002). When neonatally separated rats were evaluated in open-field tests for fear, enriched rats showed significantly less fear than unenriched rats.

Rather than negatively impacting welfare, stressful experiences during adolescence may help animals cope with stressors later in life. Adolescent rats were exposed to several weeks of various aversive stimuli, from tilting their cages, to flashing lights and sounds, to exposures to the smells or sounds of potential predators (Chaby et al., 2015). As adults these rats and their untreated controls were exposed to a mildly aversive foraging test (an open field box with hidden food in a darkened room) and a more aversive one (an open field box with hidden food in a brightly lit room with the sight and sound of a hawk, a predator). The rats did not differ in their performance in the low-stress foraging test, but the rats exposed to adolescent stressors performed better than the controls in the high stress test. The researchers concluded that some kinds of stressful experiences may be beneficial by helping young animals prepare for more stressful environments in the future. While these results cannot be directly applied to other species, popular ideas about the necessity for a ‘stress free’ life for pets and other animals should be critically examined. It is possible that certain unpleasant experiences during this phase can actually enhance resilience to other challenges later in life.

10.5 Recommendations for Improving the Mental Health of Young and Older Companion Animals

10.5.1 Development of realistic expectations

To start, caretakers need to have realistic expectations about what they can reasonably expect from their relationships with their pets in order to avoid disappointment, frustration, and from setting goals for their pets’ behaviors that will never be attainable. When it comes to people–pet relationships, unrealistic expectations stem from a lack of understanding of the pets’ physical and behavioral needs and normal behavior as well as a failure to correctly read the behavioral signs of emotional states, especially those of negative emotions. Pet owners have long had access to information about the physical needs of companion animals from veterinarians and other pet professionals as well as from books, videos, and online resources. This education has undoubtedly improved the physical health of pets. What has been lacking until very recently is good information that allows pet caretakers to develop an understanding of normal pet behavior and to recognize the emotional states and behavioral needs of pets.

10.5.2 Understanding normal behavior

Despite the wealth of information available on pet behavior, incomplete and incorrect information about normal pet behavior is still widespread. Many people do not know enough about normal dog or cat elimination behavior to know the best way to housetrain a new dog or how to set up a litterbox that will be regularly used by a new cat. Some people wrongly believe that behaviors seen in pets left home alone, such as destructiveness and house soiling, are motivated by spite. Pet caretakers cannot hope to provide the best quality of life for their animals without a good understanding of normal pet behavior.

10.5.3 Recognizing emotional states

Research has found that pet parents have difficulty identifying signs of fear, depression, and other negative emotions in their dogs (Mariti et al., 2012). Pet professionals with little experience also have been found to have difficulty recognizing fearful behaviors in dogs (Wan et al., 2012). An inability to correctly identify an animal’s emotional states makes it difficult to meet its needs and promote mental health. It follows that caretakers who can read the emotions of their pets can better meet their pets’ behavioral needs and promote better welfare.

10.5.4 Meeting behavioral needs

It is reasonable to assume that minimizing pain, fear, and discomfort, and providing for social companionship, mental stimulation, predictability, and controllability in the environment should generate more positive emotions for animals and improve their mental health. Precisely how these worthy goals can be accomplished is neither as simple nor straightforward as it might seem. As we stated in the review of early development research, it is hard to know which experiences are going to be the most helpful for any given animal at any specific time. Genetic predispositions and prior experiences can influence the relative importance of behavioral needs and thus the effectiveness of particular environmental interventions.

Dogs that have had only a narrow range of enjoyable experiences with other dogs and in new situations when young are more likely to be fearful in unfamiliar contexts and when meeting unfamiliar animals. Such dogs are more likely to respond to the social overtures of others with avoidance, escape, threats, or aggression, and are more likely to avoid novelty. The result is limited opportunities for experiencing new sources of social contact and mental stimulation and the positive emotions associated with them. Conversely, well socialized dogs who have had a variety of pleasant experiences with people, other animals, and new situations early in life are more likely to enjoy social overtures by others. Their openness to social contact and opportunities for social play and mental stimulation can then expand, as can the frequency of positive emotions associated with them.

Thus, the needs for social contact and mental stimulation will be very different for animals who enjoy them compared to those who do not. New social contacts and new places will be a source of rewards and positive emotions for better socialized dogs, but they will be sources of aversiveness and negative emotions for the others.

The needs to predict changes in the social and physical environment and to control some aspects of their environments will be important regardless of socialization status, but the specifics are likely to be different. Poorly socialized dogs will likely find unpredictable and uncontrollable environments more aversive and more emotionally unpleasant than better socialized and adaptable dogs who can tolerate and even enjoy more unpredictability and uncontrollability in life.

Clearly, these six behavioral needs are inter-related. In general, having needs met for social contact, mental stimulation, predictability, and controllability will create or increase positive emotions, while not having those needs met will create or increase negative emotions. The specifics of how those needs are best met for individual animals will be dependent on individual characteristics and will typically vary over time and circumstances.

10.5.5 Limitations of specific recommendations

What this means is that generalized recommendations for meeting behavioral needs cannot be expected to be a good fit for all animals. While some puppies or kittens may benefit from meeting as many unfamiliar people as possible, or being exposed to a wide variety of novel situations, too many of these experiences may be counterproductive for other animals. Any general guidelines about how to meet the needs of dogs or cats must be tempered by a recognition that the needs of each animal will be different and management and training should be tailored to those individual needs. To further complicate matters, behavioral needs will change with age. The need for control of the environment by a 4-week old puppy will not be the same as for that same dog at 4 or 10 years of age. Pet owners should be reminded that their pets’ needs will change over time and will need to be re-evaluated.

10.5.6 Discovering what creates or enhances positive emotions

Given the variability in the behavioral needs of animals and what little we know of how those needs are affected by experiences during development and later, one of the most important things that caretakers can do is to continually be aware of what their pets find rewarding and what they find aversive. Steps can then be taken to facilitate the former and diminish the latter. That can be best achieved by carefully observing – and understanding – the animal’s body language associated with positive and negative emotional states.

Another way to determine what pets find reinforcing is by giving the animal choices, that is, doing informal preference tests to see which experiences, items, or events they prefer or actively choose over others. Would the family cat prefer the cat perch placed next to the window where he can look out, or in the corner of the living room where he can see what most of the family is doing? Placing the perch in each location for a few days and capturing the duration or frequency of use by the cat will give one indication of preference. A check sheet such as the one in Fig. 10.1 can help caretakers and pet professionals identify the emotions of the animals in their care and determine if they are meeting the behavioral needs of the animals.

Creating an environment that is largely predictable, but with ‘pleasant surprises’ from time to time, will probably be sufficient for many animals. Feeding times, play and exercise times, and bedtime should be fairly consistent, but extra walks on occasion, a new puzzle toy, or a short ride in the car with the family may break up routines and create more positive emotions. Monitoring the animal’s emotional responses to these unpredictable surprises will help the caretaker identify the ones that are pleasant and the ones that are not.

Giving pets choices in other ways may help give them a better sense of control, especially with experiences that are aversive. Caretakers should avoid forcing the animal to experience things that are clearly aversive, except when it is necessary for the well-being of the animal or others. Dogs should not be allowed to choose not to make a necessary visit the veterinarian or groomer, for example. But many times the emotional valence of currently aversive events can be changed so that they become at least more tolerable and maybe even enjoyable. Experienced behavior consultants and trainers can accomplish these changes with behavior modification techniques such as counterconditioning and desensitization.

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