Bruce A. Connally The image of horses, donkeys, and mules has evolved in the Western world from primarily beasts of burden to noble animals whose manes and tails flow freely as they run across the hills. While this is obviously a romanticized view of horses, it has significance in the discussion of equine euthanasia. Many horses remain working animals on the racetrack, in the show ring, on the ranch, or in the mountains. A very large percentage of horses are now considered companions or pets by their owners. With a potential lifespan of over twenty years, horses and all equids may remain in a single family for extended periods. Emotional attachments are often strong between equine competitors and their horses as well. Observe the barrel racer or dressage rider interact with their horse at the end of a competition to recognize the bond that forms between horse and rider. Horses are also romanticized in literature and movies as majestic creatures with sometimes human‐like characteristics (Davis and Maurstad 2016). All of this has added an emotional dimension to equine euthanasia that was not always given due consideration in veterinary medical contexts. As with other species, people care about the way in which horses are euthanized. They wish for it to be gentle and humane with the least amount of stress to the horse as possible. Euthanasia is a term used for the ending of life of horses not intended for food purposes (i.e. slaughter). Currently available euthanasia methods include the administration of pharmaceutical drugs (e.g. pentobarbital) and physical methods (e.g. gunshot). In countries where equine slaughter is not allowed, and a horse is suffering from poor physical or emotional conditions, or when resources are lacking to continue care, individual euthanasia procedures will be carried out by veterinarians (Myers et al. 2019). To meet the needs of communities facing the challenges of large unwanted horse numbers, future equine euthanasia centers managed by veterinarians may be the answer. The euthanasia discussion may begin weeks or months before the actual euthanasia is performed. This may be a way for the owner to gradually accept the reality that ending their life is the most humane way to support their horse. Sometimes it is difficult for owners to recognize how much pain the horse is experiencing. The equine discomfort ethogram (Torcivia and McDonnell 2021) or the ridden horse pain ethogram (Dyson 2022) can be used to educate the horse owner about recognizing signs of pain. This and sage advice from veterinarians will often make the end‐of‐life (EOL) decision easier for an owner or trainer to accept as the best outcome for their horse. Finances may also become a part of the discussion and affect the timing of euthanasia. Expensive therapies to prolong the life of an old or disabled horse may be legitimate financial burdens. The cost‐benefit balance for the horse and the owner should be considered in the euthanasia discussion (Clough 2021). While financial considerations may be important for the owner, euthanasia of an animal strictly for financial reasons is considered unethical. Instead, other options such as rescue operations or rehoming to another owner must be considered as reasonable alternatives to euthanasia. The best interest of the horse should remain the overarching requirement in these decisions (Bell and Rogers 2021). Simply giving the horse to another owner who is incapable of providing a safe and healthy home is inappropriate and will often lead to poor welfare outcomes (Figure 4.1). Equine owners have a few practical considerations that are best addressed early in the euthanasia decision‐making process. The time of the year is an important factor to consider. A weak, older horse may not be able to survive the winter. Euthanasia before winter could prevent the pain and suffering of a horse that is down and unable to rise on a cold, snowy day. Who wants to be present, such as family members and caretakers, will be another factor to consider. Many people may be involved in the horse’s life and request to be present to say goodbye. Owners may also have strong feelings about allowing other companion horses to be either present during euthanasia or see the body afterward. The sooner decisions like these can be made, the more likely the horse being euthanized will have a better death experience. Another consideration is how to manage the large carcass after euthanasia. This includes the means of transporting the body and the actual final disposition. Transportation of the body may be accomplished in many areas by companies that specialize in hauling deceased large animals. They have specialized trucks or trailers which are fitted with equipment to load the body. If this option is not available, other means must be employed. It usually requires some heavy equipment such as a tractor with a loader to lift the horse onto a waiting truck or trailer with an open top. It is much more difficult to load the body into a covered horse trailer with any kind of tractor/loader. Open trucks or trailers will necessitate someone cover the dead horse during transport for aesthetic reasons. Flatbed automobile tow trucks work very well. They can load and unload the horse’s body with the same equipment used to load cars but do so with respect and consideration for those who are watching. Almost every pet owner, including those of horses, is inclined to take one last look at their animal before departing (Butler and Lagoni 2006). Therefore, it is important to convey reverence at all times before, during, and after death, including during transport. Figure 4.1 A bonded owner with their horse. Note that this position is unsafe, especially during the euthanasia procedure. Some people would rather not cope with the details of body disposal after euthanasia. Many veterinary clinics or hospitals will offer euthanasia with aftercare of the body if the horse is transported to the clinic. The client may have input into disposal or may let the veterinary clinic handle all of the details. This certainly makes the process easier for the horse owner. There may be some additional costs associated with this service but may actually be more cost‐effective in areas without ready access to companies that will dispose of the body. Deceased horse body care is best talked about early during euthanasia preparations and planning. As a species‐specific consideration, it is one of the most important. Most horse owners will not have an appropriate site to bury their animal. Even if they do, burial may or may not be strictly regulated by local laws. Proximity to water sources or underground utilities must be determined before digging. If the horse was euthanized with barbiturates, special care must be exercised due to long persistence of the drug in the environment and the potential for contamination of groundwater (Kollias et al. 2023). Local authorities should be consulted first to ensure that burial complies with all applicable laws and regulations. These are some common horse burial guidelines often recommended throughout the United States: When euthanizing a horse that is to be buried, it is expedient to have the horse as close to the burial site as possible but does add more potential danger/risk to the procedure. If the horse bolts or falls unexpectedly, the veterinarian may be pushed into the hole. It is even possible the horse could fall into the hole on top of that person. If the horse does fall directly into the hole, the attending veterinarian will have to climb in to verify death. Pet cemeteries may accept horses for burial, especially in rural areas. Some may even allow the horse to be transported to their property before being euthanized. Veterinarians can perform the euthanasia procedure somewhere safe on the cemetery property, which allows for easy movement of the deceased horse to the grave site. This is a significant convenience for the horse owner. There is a cohort of horse owners who want to dispose of the body more in accordance with nature. They may elect to leave the body in an area where it can give back to the earth, i.e. scavengers can utilize it. Veterinarians may make suggestions but do not survey the area nor hold power of regulation over such decisions. Insects and scavengers will be drawn to the carcass; therefore, extra caution should be taken. It is generally illegal to use state or federal public lands for body disposal. Horses used on pack or hunting trips that die on federal lands where grizzly bears exist can lead to problematic human‐bear interactions. The US Forest Service has used explosives to disperse the carcass, making it less of an attraction for the large bears (Roza 2022). Western ranches consisting of large areas of open prairie are the most appropriate places for natural disposition of a horse carcass. The horse must be euthanized using a method that prevents the ingestion of toxic agents by scavengers. Gunshot, intravenous (IV) potassium chloride or magnesium sulfate, and intrathecal (ITh) lidocaine are appropriate methods which leave minimal toxicity in the carcass. Barbiturate (e.g. pentobarbital) euthanasia is not acceptable when leaving the horse’s body for scavengers or in areas where water runoff is expected. For more on pentobarbital risks in the environment, see Chapter 7. Crematoriums are available for horses in some communities. A few of these facilities can cremate the horse intact but many will need to dismember the body to include all of it in a furnace retort. Placing an entire body within the machine is likely preferred by horse owners wishing to avoid dismemberment. Some crematoriums are beginning to offer a chemical cremation known as alkaline hydrolysis (AH). AH machines designed for livestock are large and can accommodate whole bodies. AH is touted as more environmentally friendly and is gaining popularity in both urban and rural areas (Arnold et al. 2024). Whether a horse owner chooses traditional flame cremation or AH, they will have the option to receive ashes back or have them disposed of in accordance with the facility’s policy. Other possibilities must be considered if burial or cremation is not an option. Many landfills will accept horses for burial. These landfill operations maintain a special location which is designed to control leaching of barbiturates out into the environment. Other landfills that do not have this capacity may refuse to accept horse carcasses euthanized with barbiturates. Barbiturates have been shown to persist even when a carcass is composted to the point of complete breakdown of bones (Payne 2015). However, some data now shows that composting can be more effective than previously thought at reducing the amount of lingering barbiturate in soil (Lochner et al. 2022). Barbiturate residue has also been discovered in pet food despite complete processing of the food (Beynen 2018). This has contributed to rendering facilities refusing to take carcasses euthanized using barbiturates. All of this planning is often for naught when an emergency situation arises. A young, healthy horse with untreatable colic or a life‐ending orthopedic injury forces owners to make the choices previously discussed without the opportunity to plan. Veterinarians are in a position to help with the management of the post‐euthanasia details. A simple means of supporting the client is to maintain a list of contact information for body recovery services and facilities in the area that can dispose of the body. In contrast to smaller companion animals, the actual process of euthanizing a horse, donkey, or mule is a potentially challenging and dangerous procedure. Many owners think of their horse as a gentle companion that would never harm them. The size of the animal and the reality that horses are flight animals require a completely different approach than with a dog or cow. If the horse is injured or suffering a painful disease, they become more unpredictable. The top two priorities for horse euthanasia will be safety for nearby people and for the humane treatment of the patient. The entire euthanasia procedure may occur in a pen or even an open field. We cannot ask a horse to lie down quietly like a small animal, and we cannot restrain most horses with a physical squeeze chute as we would do with other hoofstock. In a hospital setting, there may be stocks to hold the horse for sedation and a padded room in which lateral recumbency is achieved. Regardless of the location, in most situations, the horse will transition from a standing position to lateral recumbency quite rapidly. This great variety of facilities and situations will influence which method of euthanasia is chosen. Onlooker and owner emotions can sometimes complicate how the euthanasia procedure is completed and may put everyone involved at risk of injury. Owners often feel an emotional need to hold the horse during the procedure. It is best to first talk through the procedure and establish guidelines for everyone involved before euthanasia is attempted. Owners, trainers, and onlookers should then be placed at least 20 ft away from the horse. They may approach again only after the horse has been pronounced deceased, or when the veterinarian deems it safe. If a trainer is employed to restrain the horse, they must be physically able to move away quickly if the need arises. It is optimum to have a trained veterinary technician to assist with the horse if possible. Emergency situations may not allow time for these discussions to be held in detail, but control of nonessential personnel remains essential for safety (Figure 4.2). Figure 4.2 Veterinarian and owner kneeling nearby once the horse is down following pentobarbital administration. Note how they are away from the legs. Source: CAETA (2025). In some cases, especially when using a firearm, the procedure may be performed without any assistance to minimize risk to those involved. Restraints such as stocks may be used to sedate the horse but are rarely used for actual euthanasia due to difficulties extricating the body afterward. Any confined space including stalls or horse trailers increases the risk for the people involved because avenues for escape are limited. It is important to emphasize to everyone involved that the horse’s response to the drugs may be unpredictable. The administration of pentobarbital for euthanasia, or anesthesia drugs for inducing pre‐euthanasia unconsciousness, should optimally cause the horse to sink quietly to the ground. However, these drugs may also result in the horse falling over backward or lunging forward, putting even an experienced horse handler at risk. Distractions for the horse and involved personnel often translate into safety issues. The patient needs to be moved away from other animals if possible. It is worth remembering that having the horse isolated from other horses may trigger a fear response. A quiet companion horse may be used to calm the patient until sedation can be administered. The companion can usually be moved away once the patient is adequately tranquilized. This increases safety as the companion horse may react unexpectedly when the patient collapses to the ground. Public events such as horse shows or rodeos, or horses requiring euthanasia in public settings such as equine boarding stables, add several complications. Often people want to help the poor horse, and while this is a noble offer, it is misguided. Too many people in the area increase the risk of someone getting hurt. An equine public event should have a team designated to respond to an emergency euthanasia situation. Ideally, the horse is moved out of the public view as humanely as possible. Heavy sedation or general anesthesia may be used to expedite safe removal away from the public eye. A mechanism to remove the animal after euthanasia is also essential. Explanations to the public without using too much detail will help them understand that the procedures they are witnessing may be discomfiting but are necessary to minimize suffering for the horse. Emergency situations such as an automobile crash involving a trailered horse are understandably unpleasant. It is almost always a public situation with the potential of onlookers. Emotions may be extremely high. The responding veterinarian must work with the law enforcement personnel to advocate for the injured animals, as many of these officers have minimal experience with large animals (Figure 4.3). Most law enforcement personnel will be unwilling to use their firearm to euthanize an injured animal, and in the United States, are never allowed to relinquish control of their firearm for the veterinarian to use. They also may be reluctant to allow the veterinarian to utilize their own firearm due to public safety concerns. In a perfect world, the responding veterinarian has adequate volumes of drugs for euthanasia when multiple horses are involved. However, this may not be the case, and more than one method of euthanasia may be required. A second veterinarian familiar with horses called in to help can improve the situation and lead to better outcomes. Euthanizing a severely injured and/or untrained horse presents a significant challenge. First, it must be determined if there is a humane method of moving the horse to a facility that will confine the horse and facilitate some means of safely approaching it. Restraint mechanisms such as a rodeo bucking chute may be employed if available. Squeeze chutes designed for cattle are not recommended except in extreme cases. Horses often panic and injure themselves further with this type of physical restraint. The traditional method of restraining untrained horses was by use of ropes. This requires multiple people and sometimes other horses that are trained to hold the rope tight. People with this skill set are becoming much less common in the equine world today. Figure 4.3 Potential for challenging euthanasia in a confined and public space. Source: Double D Trailers / https://www.doubledtrailers.com/managing‐a‐horse‐trailer‐accident/ (last access on April 18 2025). The goal of restraints may not be to perform euthanasia, but instead to give an intramuscular (IM) or IV injection of sedation drugs. The horse can then be removed into a holding pen for euthanasia by whichever method is available. It is extremely dangerous to reach through the bars of a stall or rodeo chute to administer an injection. A dart gun or pole syringe would be advantageous but are seldom available to the field practitioner (Figure 4.4). Detomidine, xylazine, acepromazine, and ketamine (in combination with these) all are effective drugs when given IM. Dosing will likely far exceed label recommendations if the horse is extremely agitated. Drug dosing of the pharmaceutical preparation is of lesser concern since the goal remains the euthanasia of the patient. Modern euthanasia in companion animal species is leaning more and more toward providing pre‐euthanasia sedation or complete anesthesia before attempting the euthanasia method itself (AVMA 2020; Robertson 2020
4
Equine Euthanasia
4.1 Species‐Specific Considerations
4.1.1 The Importance of Horses in Society
4.1.2 Preparation and Planning
4.1.2.1 Deciding the Right Time to Euthanize
4.1.2.2 Deceased Horse Body Care
4.1.2.2.1 Burial
4.1.2.2.2 Cremation and Alkaline Hydrolysis
4.1.2.2.3 Landfill, Composting, and Rendering
4.2 Equipment and Handling
4.2.1 Safety First
4.2.2 Public Events and High‐Profile Emergency Situations
4.2.3 Working with Untrained Horses
4.3 Pre‐Euthanasia Sedation and Anesthesia
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