Dominique Doyle1, Chloe Skewes1, and Marie Rippingale2 1 The Donkey Sanctuary, Sidmouth, Devon, UK 2 Bottle Green Training Ltd, Derby, UK The contents of this Chapter have been approved by The Donkey Sanctuary Donkeys have been serving mankind for 5000 years [1]. The phrase ‘beasts of burden’ describes their utility as pack animals and in many parts of the world, they play a significant economic and social role. In the United Kingdom, most donkeys are kept, unlike the horse, as pets. Their increased popularity means that they are seen more frequently for treatment in equine practice. There are several anatomical and physiological differences between donkeys and horses. Donkeys are not just small horses with big ears! Therefore, donkey‐specific protocols should be put in place and adhered to in equine veterinary practice. By following donkey‐specific protocols, Registered veterinary nurses (RVNs) can ensure that donkeys receive individualised, species‐specific nursing care and therefore have an optimum chance of recovery. Donkeys are highly intelligent and capable of learning; however, this is often overlooked, and donkeys are commonly referred to as stoical or stubborn [2]. These labels must be understood to make the handling and monitoring of donkeys safer and more efficient in practice. Stoicism is predator‐avoidance behaviour typically exhibited by prey species. Illness and injury make prey species such as the donkey vulnerable to predators and the ability to hide weaknesses made them less likely to be targeted [2]. Stoic behaviour can make reading the signs of discomfort and pain in donkeys difficult in practice. A sick or injured donkey may show no obvious clinical signs until their condition is severe. A dull or unusually quiet donkey is a veterinary emergency and requires immediate attention [2]. It is therefore imperative that RVNs understand general donkey behaviour when it comes to monitoring and assessing comfort levels. See Section 16.6 for information about pain scoring. So called ‘stubborn behaviour’ is associated with donkeys, and this is often a misunderstanding in relation to their stoical nature. Donkeys showing caution will often be misinterpreted as being stubborn [3]. Fear will often produce a defensive reaction from a donkey, and they will often try to escape. This behaviour should be recognised as fear and not misinterpreted as the donkey being stubborn or uncooperative [2]. Fear can produce ‘flight’, ‘fight’ and/or ‘freeze’ responses, and these can result in defensive behaviour. Flight responses may include the following: Fight responses can pose a health and safety risk to donkeys and people. These may include [2]: A freeze response can include: RVNs working with donkeys in practice should be able to recognise the signs of fear as this will facilitate intervention at an early stage. This will help to reduce stress to the donkey and the risk of injury to handlers. Donkeys form strong bonds for life with their companions. For this reason, donkeys should always be admitted to the practice with their companion(s). Separating donkey companions can lead to stress, anorexia, hyperlipaemia and death. If a donkey has a closely bonded companion(s), the companion(s) should be kept close by during any examinations and treatment [2]. Due to their tendency to form strong bonds, it is beneficial for the RVN to spend time with a sick donkey and their companion(s) (Figure 16.1). Tender loving care (TLC) in the form of grooming, petting and hand feeding can contribute enormously towards reducing stress and promoting recovery [4]. RVNs, in practice, should know how to manage a situation in which donkey companions are separated by death. If one of the donkeys dies or is euthanised, it is essential that the surviving companion(s) are allowed to remain with the body of their companion until they have lost interest [5]. The bereaved companion(s) should be closely monitored for several weeks afterwards, as bereavement stress can manifest itself up to three weeks after the death. If it is appropriate for all the animals involved, another quiet donkey could be introduced to the pair at home over a fence prior to euthanasia. This will mean that the survivor is left with a companion within its visual field [2]. After the euthanasia, a structured introduction can then be made between this pair. This process should be managed carefully. RVNs and veterinary surgeons (vets) can make a big difference in the quality of life of the remaining companion and the owner by offering advice and support during this process. If a surviving donkey is alone following bereavement, the RVN and vet should assess the requirement for a new companion. Individual donkeys may react differently to bereavement and may not need a new companion immediately [2]. RVNs working in equine practice may be required to assist with the handling and restraint of donkeys either in the hospital or during out‐on‐yard visits. Regardless of the reason for handling or restraint, all involved should make sure that this is a positive experience for the donkey. This will help to reduce stress and the risk of injury to both the donkey and the handlers. It is always a good idea to consult the owner in these situations. It can be beneficial to have the owner present, as the donkey will already have a trusting relationship with them. Where this is not possible, the owner should be consulted as to which handling and restraint techniques might work best. If the donkey has a bonded companion, they should be present and remain in eyesight of their friend for the duration of the procedure [2]. When handling donkeys, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) should be worn, such as a hard hat, gloves and steel toe‐capped boots. Table 16.1 presents different handling and restraining techniques for situations that may be encountered in equine practice. Any handling or restraint should be made to be a positive experience for the donkey. Therefore, following the application of any restraint, the handler should spend some time with the donkey to provide some reassurance [2]. Food can be given as a reward as well as wither scratches if appropriate [2]. The need to use a twitch should be considered very carefully. A nose twitch applied to the top lip of the donkey may be effective, although each individual will react differently to this. Twitches should only ever be applied under veterinary supervision where there is no other option [2]. Twitches should not be used for procedures such as farriery, dental or routine veterinary treatments. They should never be left in place for more than five minutes. Ear twitching in donkeys is not recommended. It is painful and can result in defensive behaviour [2]. Behaviour modification can be approached with techniques such as shaping plans. The best way to help a donkey learn is to use the process of shaping behaviour [6]. Shaping is a process where the desired behaviour is broken down into small steps or learning blocks for the donkey to process. The small steps are then added together through training to build the final desired behaviour [6]. For example, behaviour shaping could be implemented to achieve a calm, safe farrier visit [6]. The steps involved in behaviour shaping can be written down to create a shaping plan that is easy to follow. If the plan is written down, it makes it less likely that steps will be missed out or misinterpreted and this will make the process more positive and efficient for the donkey and handlers involved. Further resources and information can be found by accessing The Donkey Academy. This is virtual learning environment provided by The Donkey Sanctuary. Please see the useful links section at the end of this chapter. Table 16.1 Handling and restraint techniques for donkeys. Source: Marie Rippingale. Figure 16.1 Grooming and spending time with donkeys can contribute significantly to their recovery. Source: Dr Francis Boyer. The domestic donkey is descended from African wild asses that evolved to live in semi‐arid environments with only poor quality, sparse vegetation. To increase their potential food sources, donkeys have evolved as browsers as well as grazers with woody shrubs and trees being potential food sources when grasses and other low vegetation are not abundant [7]. Donkeys are highly efficient at digesting poor nutritional quality fibre and possess a superior digestive efficiency compared to horses when digesting forages such as straw [8]. The donkey’s natural adaptations to survive on poor quality feed when compared to ponies means that when donkeys are treated as mini horses or kept in the same way as their horse companions, they may become obese and subsequently develop serious health problems. This is a serious consideration for RVNs when caring for donkeys in practice. Figure 16.2 Physical restraint technique for a fearful donkey. Source: Dr Francis Boyer. Donkeys require a diet high in fibre and low in calories and will eat the equivalent of 1.3–1.8% of their body weight in dry matter each day. This equates to a standard‐sized donkey of 180 kg in weight being fed 2.5–3.5 kg of good‐quality barley straw over 24 hours [9]. This is dependent on the season, with the lower value being required in the summer. This value is also calculated assuming that the donkey has no dental issues. Donkeys with poor teeth may require further alterations to their diet. Straw should form the majority of the diet for most donkeys as it is high in fibre and low in sugar. Good quality barley straw is ideal for feeding donkeys with good teeth (Figure 16.3). Oat straw is better suited to old or underweight donkeys with good teeth as this has a slightly higher nutritional value than barley straw [10]. Figure 16.3 Good quality barley straw is ideal to feed to donkeys with good teeth. Source: Dr Francis Boyer. A RVN working in equine practice should source the appropriate feed for donkeys if they are admitted. If the donkeys eat straw at home, it is important to keep their diet the same to avoid gastrointestinal upset. If straw cannot be sourced, the owners should be asked to bring in forage from home to avoid an abrupt dietary change. A feed balancer should also be fed to provide extra vitamins and minerals. The RVN could also give the donkeys access to an equine mineral lick. Following a full veterinary examination, diagnosis and, based on a treatment plan, an inappetent, poorly donkey should be tempted with anything it will eat. These patients should be hand fed with bread, carrots, apples and/or ginger biscuits. Donkeys with poor teeth may struggle to chew these. In this case, carrots and apples can be grated and added to the feed. If this is not practical, mashed tinned carrots or small amounts of apple sauce could be used [9]. It is important to avoid feeding cereal‐based coarse mixes to donkeys as they do not require the high sugar and starch levels provided by such feeds. Problems such as gastric ulceration, laminitis and obesity could occur as a result of overfeeding [9]. An anorexic, very sick donkey must be managed according to the condition being treated and in consultation with the case vet. A clean supply of water should always be available to donkeys. Water intake will vary but is on average about 4–9% of body weight per day during rest. Donkeys prefer clean water, so in the hospital, the RVN should ensure that water is changed at least daily. If it is very cold, tepid water can be offered to encourage water intake. If tepid water is offered, the temperature should be checked beforehand to make sure it is safe for drinking. Fruit juice and mint can be added to drinking water to encourage consumption. Clean, fresh water should always be offered separately. There are several anatomical and physiological differences between donkeys and horses. These differences should change how donkeys are viewed from a treatment and nursing care perspective. The physiological parameters of the donkey are different when compared to those of the horse. Table 16.2 shows the normal parameters for horses and donkeys. A major difference between the horse/pony and the donkey is their hooves. Donkeys have upright pasterns, with their hoof wall being between 5% and 10% steeper. Additionally, their hoof wall is a constant thickness from heel to toe. The appearance of the donkey’s sole is likened to a U‐shape, with a narrow, more developed heel contributing to an overall cylindrical shape as opposed to the conical shape hoof of a horse or pony. While the donkey has a more developed heel with a slight flare, it is paired with a broader frog that does not extend as far proximally in their hoof compared to horses and ponies. This means that the frog does not give the same support to the donkey’s pedal bone. Therefore, the use of frog supports for a laminitic donkey is not appropriate [2]. Table 16.2 Normal parameters for donkeys and horses [2]. Source: Chloe Skewes and The Donkey Sanctuary. Figure 16.4 This image displays a cross section of a normal donkey hoof (left) and normal horse hoof (right). The black arrows indicate the level at which P3 begins, note the donkey’s pedal bone is roughly 1 cm below the coronary band whereas the horse’s is level. The red stars indicate how far forward the horses frog extends towards the toe providing support to the horse’s pedal bone compared to the donkey. Source: The Donkey Sanctuary. These differences in hoof anatomy, combined with an underdeveloped pectoral muscle and a donkey’s overall smaller size and stature, give them a noticeably narrower gait when stationary and mobile compared to the horse or pony. The internal anatomy of their hooves is different in that their pedal bone begins just 1 cm below the coronary band (Figure 16.4). When handling donkeys for procedures like foot radiographs, it is important to be aware that they have a lower centre of gravity when compared with horses. When picking up their feet to place or position them for radiographs, they need to be held lower and closer to the ground for them to be comfortable and balanced. This also applies when picking out their hooves [2]. The donkey’s hoof has a higher moisture content compared to horses or ponies; this difference serves them well when living in a dry, rocky environment. However, in the humid, wet conditions experienced in the United Kingdom, this characteristic means their hooves are more pliable, permeable and at a higher risk of hoof pathologies. For instance, white line disease and abscess formation are common in donkeys [2]. The donkey’s coat does not possess the waterproofing abilities of horses as they do not produce the same quantities of natural grease. In a study that compared the coat properties of horse, donkeys and mules, it was discovered that donkeys had significantly lower hair weight and hair length than horses, both in the winter and in the spring [11]. There were also large seasonal changes in hair weight and length for both horses and mules, but not for donkeys [11]. These differences make donkeys less able to tolerate wet and cold weather. Donkeys should be provided with suitable shelter all year around. Secondary to providing shelter, additional support can be provided in cold weather conditions with appropriate rugging [9]. When nursing donkeys, it is vital to be aware of their susceptibility to cold. General anaesthesia, standing sedation and recovery can put them at greater risk of hypothermia in comparison to horses or ponies. Donkeys should be checked over carefully for the presence of ectoparasites and sarcoids, the signs of which can be hidden be long, dense coats [2]. Donkeys can be affected by the same ectoparasites as horses and ponies, and these are diagnosed and treated similarly. It is important to be aware that topical application of treatments for ectoparasites may be affected by the dense coat of the donkey and this may limit effective distribution of the treatment [2]. For more information regarding ectoparasites, see Chapter 5. For more information regarding sarcoids, see Chapter 12. When blood sampling or placing intravenous (IV) catheters in donkeys using their jugular vein, it is important to note their prominent cutaneous coli muscle, which lies along the middle third of the jugular groove. This makes the upper and lower third the best sites for injection. Additionally, a steeper angle of introduction is required for accurate access to the jugular vein in comparison to horses or ponies. Due to donkeys having thicker skin, it is recommended to use local anaesthetic and a cut down for IV catheterisation (Figure 16.5). When choosing a site for intramuscular (IM) injection, the pectoral muscle is not appropriate because it is underdeveloped compared to horses or ponies alternative, more appropriate injection sites should be used [2] (Figure 16.6). The anatomical positioning of the nasolacrimal duct in donkeys is different to its location in a horse or pony. The donkey’s duct is found on the upper aspect of their nares whereas in the horse this opening of the duct is found on the lower aspect of the nostrils. The reason for this could be that the dorsolateral position of the duct opening in the donkey could reduce its likelihood of becoming blocked from sand or dust in the desert environment the donkey originates from [2]. Figure 16.5 This series of images demonstrate intravenous catheter placement in the donkey. The first image shows a sterile cut down of the skin following a local anaesthetic bleb. Note the steeper angle of introduction when introducing the catheter in the second image. Source: The Donkey Sanctuary. Figure 16.6 This image shows one of the appropriate intramuscular injection sites in the donkey. Source: The Donkey Sanctuary. The number of vertebrae differs slightly between donkeys and horses. Table 16.3 provides a comparison between the donkey and the horse. The donkey has one fewer lumbar vertebra and four fewer coccygeal vertebrae when compared to the horse or pony [12]. It is useful to note that the site for epidural injections is more caudal compared to horses due to the ease of access in this location. Table 16.3 Normal number of vertebrae for horses and donkeys. Source: Chloe Skewes. Very few drugs are licensed specifically for donkeys. Drug dosages used in horses are often transferable under the cascade for use in the donkey. As there are physiological differences between donkeys and other equids, there are also differences in pharmacokinetics, meaning that drug doses and frequency of administration may need adapting for the donkey. Although it is not a definitive rule, donkeys’ drug metabolism is generally faster than in horses or ponies. This is because donkeys have adapted by evolving to live in arid and sparse environments with a reduced water supply. They can recycle water more efficiently to cope better with dehydration compared to horses. Donkeys can maintain their blood plasma volume when up to 20% dehydrated [13]. This affects drug distribution and contributes to both the clearance rate and the half‐life of medications being shorter in the donkey. Recommendations are to reduce the dosing interval of medications instead of increasing the dose itself. An accurate weight is essential, and the best practice is to weigh the donkey using an electronic weighbridge. Alternatively, the dedicated donkey weigh tape and nomogram, which accounts both a donkey’s height and heart girth measurements can be used to estimate weight. An accurate weight is important to ensure effective dosing is achieved and to reduce the risk of toxicity [2]. There is variation in metabolism within the species, donkeys of different sizes can metabolise some medications at different rates [2]. For example, miniature donkeys metabolise phenylbutazone faster, and they require more frequent dosing intervals of three times daily or every eight hours. Standard‐size donkeys are dosed every 12 hours with phenylbutazone. There are other anti‐inflammatories used in horses that are also given to donkeys; for instance, Flunixin meglumine every 12 hours is used as a first‐line peri‐operative choice with phenylbutazone for ongoing analgesia. Whereas these anti‐inflammatories can be suitable for use in horses every 24 hours, they should be administered to donkeys every 12 hours due to their faster metabolic rate. Phenylbutazone can be started at a loading dose of 4.4 mg/kg but should then be reduced to a maintenance dose of 2.2 mg/kg after the initial loading period. Although Meloxicam is used as an anti‐inflammatory in horses, it is not recommended for use in the donkey as they metabolise it too quickly [2]. Table 16.4 Drugs and dosages used in donkeys with key donkey specific information. Source: The Donkey Sanctuary.
16
Donkeys
Introduction
16.1 Behaviour
General Behaviour
Bonding and Bereavement
16.2 Handling and Restraint
Situation
Environmental considerations
Handling considerations
Physical restraint
Comments
Fearful donkey:
A fearful donkey may employ flight behaviour and try to escape from the handlers. This behaviour is seen as barging, pulling away and dragging handlers. It is important to remember that this is a fear response and should be dealt with calmly and with the least physical restraint possible
‘Frozen’ donkey:
Donkeys may ‘freeze’ and become unwilling to move when they are fearful of new situations. It is important to allow the donkey time to assess the situation. Patient, sensitive handling is required [2]
16.3 Nutrition
Water
16.4 Differences in Anatomy and Physiology
Physiological Parameters
Hooves
Parameter
Donkey
Horse
Temperature
36.5–37.8 °C
37–38.5 °C
Pulse rate
36–52 beats per minute
24–40 beats per minute
Respiration rate
12–38 breaths per minute
8–16 breaths per minute 
Coat
Injection Sites
Nasolacrimal Duct
Number of Vertebrae
Vertebrae type
Donkey
Horse
Cervical
7
7
Thoracic
18
18
Lumbar
5
6
Sacral
5
5
Coccygeal/Caudal
15–17
15–21
Differences in Medications and Drug Metabolism
Name of drug
Dose
Route
Comments for use in the donkey
Carprofen
0.7—1.3 mg/kg q24hrs
IV PO (orally)
Give IV as a single dose. Metabolised more slowly in donkeys
Etorphine
MUST NEVER BE USED IN THE DONKEY
Ketamine
2.2—2.8 mg/kg bwt
IV
Cleared more rapidly in donkeys, especially miniature donkeys. More frequent top‐ups required for total IV anaesthesia
Meloxicam
0.6 mg/kg
IV
Not advised for use in donkeys – very short half‐life
Phenylbutazone
2.2 mg/kg—4.4 mg/kg q12hr in standard. q8hr in miniatures
IV, PO
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