10 Diseases of the Urino-genital System The predominant sign will be either blood or pus in the urine. Urine can be collected in a clean sterile container for examination for blood, crystals and bacteria. Owners should be told not to use jam jars as there is likely to be sugar found erroneously in the sample. There is likely to be bacterial contamination even with a sterile container, so the results of culture should be judged with caution. The most likely modes of infection are parturition and service. Haematogenous infection of the kidneys is possible but is likely to be rare. The condition may be a low-grade local infection or a systemic infection with the pig showing a raised rectal temperature, lethargy and inappetence. If the infection is in the bladder, i.e. cystitis, the animal will be constantly passing small quantities of urine. Cystitis is much more common in sows than in boars. Pyelonephritis, an infection of the kidneys, is also more common in sows when caused by an ascending infection (Fig. 10.1). If pyelonephritis is caused by a haematogenous spread it is equally common in boars and sows. Urinary infections are normally caused by Actinobaculum suis, Escherichia coli or Klebsiella spp. These organisms are commonly found in the prepuce of boars and in sows’ vaginas, not causing clinical disease. As stated earlier their appearance in urine must be judged with caution. If found, particularly in pure culture, together with clinical disease they are likely to be significant. In these instances antibiotic sensitivity testing is well worthwhile. It is not known why in certain cases the infection is not killed by the sow’s immune mechanisms. The rectal temperature is rarely raised initially when there is only cystitis, but it will become raised when the organism ascends the ureter and infects the kidney. With appropriate prolonged antibiotic treatment the condition may be cured, or if only one kidney is infected the sow can appear to respond only to suffer relapses of the infection. She is obviously infectious to the boar. As the infection is in the urinary system she may come regularly into oestrus and may even get pregnant. In these cases it is prudent to inject a suitable antibiotic at farrowing to try to avoid a flare-up of the condition. If several cases occur in a herd then routine treatment with antibiotics of both boars and sows before service may be justified. The author’s preference is long-acting oxytetracycline given by injection at the appropriate time before service in the boar and after service in the sow. If antibiotics are given in the feed or water to all animals in the service area, the danger of antibiotic resistance is high. Fig. 10.1. A sow with pyelonephritis. Porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome (PDNS) is a serious condition which is mainly restricted to fattening pigs. It may even be seen at the abattoir with the stress of the journey bringing on the condition. Pigs may die rapidly and the condition may resemble CSF. Clinicians should consult more experienced colleagues if there is any doubt as to the diagnosis. There is a syndrome called ‘rotting prepuce syndrome’ which may be part of the PDNS condition. It occurs in entire boars. The ventral surface of the prepuce appears to be abraded. Some authorities have linked the condition to bedding on wheat straw. There may be actual necrosis not only to the prepuce but also to the abdominal wall. If it reaches an advanced state euthanasia is indicated, but in less severe cases antibiotics and NSAIDs by injection and oily creams topically may be beneficial. PDNS is also covered in the skin disease section (see Chapter 12). This is called the kidney worm. It does not occur in the UK but it is seen in tropical areas of North and South America. The worm uses earthworms as a secondary host. The adult worm, which is 2 mm in length, lives in the ureters and often causes nephritis. The eggs are shed in the urine and eaten by earthworms. When the earthworms are eaten by the pig the eggs turn into larvae and migrate through the liver, causing damage often seen at slaughter very similar to ‘milk spot’ caused by ascarid migration. They may also cause liver abscesses. The larvae find their way in the blood-stream to the ureters. The prepatent period is approximately 9 months. Ivermectin by injection is effective in eliminating larvae and adults. This is caused by deposits of calcium carbonate. The reason for the deposits is unclear. It may be related to the diet. It is not related to a shortage of drinking water as this will cause salt poisoning as explained in the section covering neurological diseases (see Chapter 11). Urolithiasis is seen in sows and neonatal pigs. It is extremely rare in store pigs and is rare in finishing pigs. It can be prevented by providing a good diet. Treatment is difficult if there is a blockage of the urethra. In the author’s experience this never occurs in sows as the urethra is large and is very easily catheterized, using a mare’s urinary catheter. A blockage of the urethra is a disaster in a boar or a castrated boar as in the author’s experience it is impossible to catheterize a male pig of any age even under a GA. In theory a urethrostomy could be performed below the anus provided the blockage is distal to this site. In reality euthanasia should be performed on welfare grounds. Reproductive management is not easy for smallholder pig owners. However, with normal vigilance they should be able to recognize oestrus and, by applying pressure to the back of the sow, should be able to detect standing oestrus. AI is not a difficult procedure in pigs. It has many advantages for the smaller breeder: • There is no need to keep a boar, thus saving the capital outlay not only of the boar but also of the extra building and pens required. There are reduced feed costs, if a boar is not kept. • Disease control is much easier if boars are not borrowed. • New blood is easily introduced rather than keep changing boars. • Safety is also important as often children are given access to smallholder pigs. Pigs normally reach puberty at 6 months. However it should be noted that in pet pigs in a domestic environment and with the absence of other pigs, this may well be delayed. If after several months in a breeding situation, a sow or gilt does not show any evidence of oestrus, then hormonal means should be tried (see below). In a commercial situation, of course no special methods should be used before a sow or gilt has been allowed close contact with an active fertile boar. The length of gestation is 114 days, with a normal variation of 2 days. The breeding cycles occur all year round, with oestrus occurring every 21 days with a variation of 1 day. The number of piglets per litter is very variable. It is affected not only by the genetics of the female but also the age of the female. After six litters the litter size tends to diminish. To carry out AI commercial staff and smallholders require training. This can be obtained at agricultural colleges and from AI centres. Equipment is required which also can be obtained from AI centres. Naturally AI centres will have semen available from top sires and from most common breeds. If semen is required from a rare breed or an exotic breed then this should be ordered in advance. Semen can be obtained from the Irelands AI centre: Deerpark Pedigree Pigs 2 Drumanee Road Bellaghy Magherafelt BT45 8LE Tel: +44 (0)28 7938 6558 If orders are placed before 1 pm semen will arrive the next day. Oestrus can be synchronized by the use of oral altrenogest (see Appendix under Altresyn and Regumate porcine) in both gilts and sows. Gilts and sows will be expected to come into oestrus 5–7 days after the final day of administration of the drug. This same drug can be used to improve litter size in both gilts and sows. It can also be used to increase the farrowing rate in sows. Parturition can be induced by 10 mg dinoprost given im within 3 days of expected parturition. Parturition can also be induced by 0.175 mg cloprostenol sodium given within 2 days of expected parturition. The use of either of these luteolytic agents to induce farrowing in sows and gilts will provide an opportunity for more efficient and convenient management under a variety of management systems. The advertised advantages are: • Allows batch management of sows and gilts to be efficiently achieved. • Minimizes farrowings at weekends, public holidays and during the night. • Facilitates supervision of farrowing. • Facilitates interfostering. • Enables farrowing and labour schedules to be planned for convenience. • Prevents sows and gilts going beyond term. • Allows optimal use of farrowing quarters, equipment, etc. To reduce the weaning to oestrus interval (WOI) and weaning to fertile service interval (WFSI) in sows in herds with reproductive problems, prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) has a stimulating effect on uterine contractions, leading to better postpartum evacuation of the uterus. Field clinical trials in herds with reproductive problems confirmed that treatment with 10 mg dinoprost at weaning resulted in a more rapid return to oestrus and fertile service after farrowing. Sows post-weaning, particularly where early weaning is practised, if given an injection of 400 IU serum gonadotrophin and 200 IU chorionic gonadotrophin within 48 h of weaning, will result in an early postpartum oestrus. Sows 40 days postpartum suffering from anoestrus post-weaning can be given 1000 IU serum gonadotrophin (pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin (PMSG)). This normally results in a fertile oestrus in 3–7 days. Haemoglobin (Hb) concentration decreases over time during the sow’s productive life (Normand et al., 2012). Gilts begin their reproductive life with a concentration of nearly 120 g/l; subsequent gestations appear to contribute to a decrease in Hb concentration, which falls below 110 g/l for sows of parity rank six or higher. Hb concentrations at farrowing and at weaning are lower than those measured 7 weeks before term. The thinner the sow, the lower is its Hb concentration, regardless of parity rank. With commercial pigs the easiest method of pregnancy diagnosis is by noting whether the sow or gilt returns to oestrus at the next cycle (18–25 days); this is 85% accurate. However, in a smallholder situation or when there is a single pet sow the accuracy of this method falls to less than 50%. The external physical signs of pregnancy are fairly obvious in gilts after 60 days. The signs include: mammary development, enlargement of the abdomen and swelling of the vulva. The signs in sows are not reliable until about 3 weeks before term. Rectal palpation is not practical for most veterinarians unless they have exceptionally small hands and the sow is large. After 60 days, pregnancy will be fairly obvious on rectal examination. Historically, pulse echo and Doppler ultrasonography were used for pregnancy diagnosis. However, these have been superseded by real-time transabdominal ultrasonography, which can be accurate after 22 days using a sector head, although it is best carried out after 45 days using a linear bovine transrectal probe. Either way the probe is held low down on the flank just above the mammary line, just cranial to the hind leg. Vaginal biopsy can be accurate after 36 days and is easy to perform if the sow is adequately restrained in a crate and if the correct biopsy tool, a 20 cm side-cutting vaginal probe, is used. The vulva is cleaned with chlorohexidine before the instrument is inserted along the dorsal wall of the vagina. A 12 mm segment of vaginal mucosa is removed and placed in formal saline. This is then sent to a suitable commercial laboratory. In theory, blood oestrone sulfate levels after 35 days should be high enough to give a positive result of pregnancy. There is no laboratory doing these tests routinely in the UK at the time of writing, which makes the test very expensive. There are more problems with parturition in pet pigs than in commercial pigs. This is not because there is anything intrinsically wrong with the breeds kept by smallholders, but because the owners fuss over them too much at term so that they forget the animal is a pig and fail to go through the normal hormonal pathways to initiate a correct farrowing sequence. If a clinician is called to an abnormal farrowing whether in a commercial or a pet sow, a vaginal examination should be performed if possible, with a well-lubricated gloved hand. Restraint may well be a problem. The provision of a farrowing crate to restrain the sow for examination is highly recommended. The scenarios likely to be encountered are: • The first stage of labour has not been accomplished. The sow or gilt should be left alone and then revisited in approximately 4 h. At that stage, if there have been no further developments the sow should be given an injection of prostaglandin. • The second stage of labour has been reached but the cervix is not fully dilated. The rectal temperature should be checked for pyrexia and the mammary glands should be checked for any abnormalities. If any are found or there is pyrexia, then the animal should be given antibiotics and NSAIDs. If all appears normal the animal should be given an injection of prostaglandin and revisited in 4 h. If at that time there has been no further action, then a very small dose of oxytocin (2 IU) should be given im. • If a piglet can be felt through the cervix, this should be drawn with gentle traction. There are polythene gloves available with small cord loops attached to the fingers, which can be useful if just the head of the piglet can be felt. Another small dose of oxytocin and antibiotics should be given. Relative piglet oversize is extremely rare. The other problems likely to be encountered on rare occasions are a piglet stuck with its head in one horn and its hindquarters in the other horn and uterine torsion (see below). Hydrops allantois is an extremely rare condition in sows. The author has never seen the condition in the UK, only in Vietnam (Fig. 10.2). This will occur before parturition, normally in the last few days of gestation which is likely to be 114 days. Sows should be given antibiotics and NSAIDs. With the sow in a crate, local anaesthetic should be injected around the vulva. A ‘Buhner suture’ should be placed in the vulva. This is best placed before replacing the vulva, so that as soon as the vulva is replaced the suture can be tightened. It is difficult to place the suture while retaining the vagina or worse, the cervix inside the sow.
Urinary Problems
Nephritis/cystitis complex
Porcine dermatitis and nephropathy syndrome
Stephanurus dentatus
Urolithiasis
Breeding and Reproductive Medicine for Commercial and Smallholder Pigs
Introduction
Reproductive biology
Artificial insemination
Measures to aid reproduction
Factors which affect reproductive performance
Pregnancy diagnosis
Problems at Parturition
Abnormalities of parturition
Vaginal prolapse
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