section epub:type=”chapter” id=”c0048″ role=”doc-chapter”> Brenda Griffin In many countries, there are a substantial number of unowned cats in addition to pet cats. Individuals caring for community cats frequently seek veterinary advice and services. Trap-neuter-return (TNR) programs provide sterilization, vaccination, identification, and regular feeding, watering, and shelter for free-roaming cats. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the veterinary clinician with current recommendations for providing care to community cats during the process of trap-neuter-return (TNR) programs. Trap-neuter-return; return-to-field; community cats; feral cats; ear tipping In many countries, there are a substantial number of unowned cats in addition to pet cats. For example, in addition to the estimated 58 million owned cats in the United States,1 there are an estimated 30 to 60 million free-roaming stray and feral cats.2,3 In fact, these cats may represent as much as 50% of the total cat population in some communities. In addition, free-roaming stray and feral cats are estimated to produce up to 80% of the kittens born annually in some countries, including the United States.2 Despite the lack of exact estimates of their numbers, there is no doubt that millions of these cats exist in communities around the world, and millions of people feed them. Individuals caring for community cats frequently seek veterinary advice and services. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the veterinary clinician with current recommendations for providing care to community cats during the process of trap-neuter-return (TNR) programs. A summary of these recommendations is found in Table 48.1. Resources and additional sources of information are in Box 48.1. Table 48.1 A continuum of lifestyles exists among socialized house cats: free-roaming, previously socialized, or loosely owned strays and truly unowned, unsocialized feral cats.4 Feral cats are “wild” offspring of domestic cats and result from pet owners abandoning and/or failing to control their pets’ reproduction. Like wildlife species, when raised without human contact, feral cats are extremely wary of humans and will flee if approached. They do not allow handling and must be trapped to be presented to a veterinarian for care. In contrast, stray cats are somewhat socialized to people and the term includes cats that may have been previously owned as well as those that are loosely owned neighborhood or barn cats. Free-roaming stray and feral cats form colonies surrounding a home base, which includes a source of food and shelter. Locations with garbage bins, such as housing or shopping complexes, or those with livestock barns, are prime locations for cat colonies because they offer a supply of foodstuffs and rodents. Cats often seek shelter in crawl spaces beneath buildings and other structures where they may not be wanted (Fig. 48.1). Because stray and feral cats frequently co-exist within the same colonies, the term “community cats” is often used to refer to all outdoor-dwelling cats, regardless of socialization status. Unlike wildlife species, cats cannot fully fend for themselves in most instances. Unattended, they survive and reproduce, yet frequently suffer from exposure, disease, and trauma. The mortality rate of kittens born outdoors is high, with fewer than 25% surviving beyond 4 to 6 months of age.5 11 However, after 6 months of age, the odds of survival are improved. The life span of free-roaming cats varies depending on factors such as the colony’s location and the climate. Trauma is the most common cause of death.5 a In some cases, these cats become public nuisances, and many are euthanized at animal shelters each year. Because their reproduction frequently goes unchecked, community cats are not only a result of feline overpopulation, but also a significant source of the overpopulation problem. Substantial debate surrounds the appropriate response to the presence of community cats. Several scientific reviews of their control and the impact on the cats themselves as well as the environment have been published.2,3,6–8 Numerous stakeholders have issued position statements, representing many different and often polarized opinions (Box 48.2). The traditional approach to controlling free-roaming cats has been extermination by trapping and euthanasia. However, large-scale trap and kill programs, which would be necessary for even temporary population control, have not been widely implemented, and even small-scale attempts at trapping and euthanizing cats frequently result in public outcry. There is little doubt that public sentiment is influential in policy making, and numerous examples exist where pressure exerted by the public and animal welfare organizations has been instrumental in stopping extermination of cat colonies.9 2 In the author’s opinion, trapping cats for euthanasia perpetuates the message that cats are disposable. In contrast, the provision of affordable services to neuter (the term “neuter” in this chapter refers to spay and neuter surgeries) free-roaming cats raises awareness that cats require and deserve responsible care and enables people to “do the right thing” when cats take up residence on their property or in their neighborhood. In addition to preventing reproduction, neutering cats also serves to promote their welfare. Studies have shown that feral cats roam less and have higher body condition scores following neutering.10 a In addition, urine marking, fighting, and breeding are rapidly and dramatically reduced, making these cats less likely to be targeted as public nuisances. Finally, cats in managed colonies are no more likely than pet cats to harbor common infectious and zoonotic diseases.11–14 Using mathematical modeling, some researchers have suggested that performing vasectomies and hysterectomies would result in better population control than ovariohysterectomy and castration.15 However, this method fails to consider the welfare of cats and cannot be recommended. Removal of gonads provides highly significant benefits for cat health and welfare. It not only stops reproduction, it eliminates breeding behavior while causing a dramatic reduction in fighting, roaming, urine marking, and other nuisance behaviors associated with breeding cats. Neutered cats have better body condition scores and smaller home ranges than those that experience hormonal stress and cycling, which translates into better welfare. Importantly, the elimination of nuisance behaviors reduces complaints about cats, and allows them to live more harmoniously with people. Trap-neuter-return is a humane, nonlethal method of managing community cats and can be an effective response to manage existing cat colonies.16–19 Cats are trapped, vaccinated, neutered, and returned to their home base for release. In many TNR programs, the tip of the left ear is cropped to identify the cat as having been sterilized. This is the universal symbol for a neutered, free-roaming, community cat (Fig. 48.2). Caregivers take responsibility for feeding and monitoring the health of the cats in the colony. However, there are circumstances where TNR may not be appropriate. For example, managed colonies should not be in wildlife refuges or where endangered wildlife species are known to reside. During the past three decades, TNR has become an increasingly popular method of managing colonies of community cats. Neutered cats display fewer nuisance behaviors, such as spraying and fighting, and they cannot reproduce. Cats in colonies managed with TNR often live longer and healthier lives than cats that do not receive such care. With time, colony size should decrease because of attrition. However, it is crucial to realize that immigration of new cats is always a possibility, and in many cases, it is a likelihood; thus, ongoing vigilance and management are required. Therefore, a dedicated colony caregiver is crucial for long-term control, as well as to ensure welfare.20a In some cases, TNR has been purported to be more cost effective than trapping and euthanizing cats.21 In the United States, most states require impoundment and holding of cats prior to euthanasia which increases the cost, and private volunteers are more likely to trap cats for surgery than euthanasia. Fortunately, many people are willing to provide care for community cats. In fact, several surveys suggest that feeding of free-roaming cats is relatively common (Fig. 48.3). For example, a random-digit–dial telephone survey conducted in Ohio revealed that 184 of the 703 (26.2%) respondents reported feeding free-roaming cats.22 The authors note that surveys in other parts of the United States have also found significant numbers of respondents (8% to 12%) that feed free-roaming cats. In a cross-sectional telephone survey of randomly selected households in the Teramo province of Italy, 10% of 397 respondents said they care for free-roaming cats.23 Caregivers may provide additional care for community cats, including neutering and vaccination. Some caregivers work independently, using their own resources to provide care, while others work with loosely organized networks, or with more formal programs that subsidize the cost of veterinary services. More recently, return-to-field (RTF) programs have been established at some animal shelters in the United States. Sometimes called shelter-neuter-return programs, they are increasingly being used by animal shelters as a nonlethal means of managing community cats by TNR. An estimated 3.2 million cats are admitted to shelters annually in the United States, with more cats than dogs entering most shelters.3 In 2018, Canadian animal shelters took in more than 81,000 cats.24 In addition to those that are surrendered by owners, many cats are brought in by good Samaritans and in some cases by animal control agents responding to concerns about free-roaming cats. Thus, community cats represent a large proportion of cats entering shelters. Tragically, it is estimated that approximately 70% of all cats entering American shelters are euthanized.c As such, it must be acknowledged that admission to an animal shelter is often not in a community cat’s best interest. When cats appear to be healthy and well-adapted to outdoor life, neutering, vaccinating, and returning them to live as community cats is a reasonable, responsible, and humane option regardless of their socialization status. Communities that have embraced widespread TNR and RTF programs have experienced dramatic decreases in the number of cats euthanized in shelters. The Million Cat Challenge (Box 48.1) is a shelter-based campaign that began in 2014 with the mission of saving the lives of one million cats in North America within 5 years. The organization considers RTF programs to be a key initiative. Despite the growing popularity and number of TNR programs in countries such as the United States, tremendous debate continues to surround this style of management of community cats. Various stakeholders do agree on one important, mutual goal: reducing the number of community cats. Indeed, progress toward this goal will only serve to enhance cat welfare and reduce the impacts, if any, that community cats have on the environment, wildlife, and public health. As veterinary practitioners, it behooves us to always consider the welfare of the cats themselves. That being said, assessing welfare can also be controversial, and the welfare of community cats may vary. No single strategy will be perfect for managing all community cat colonies, but in most situations, TNR will enhance the quality of life for community cats and will also serve to raise awareness of their needs. It is crucial to provide the least stressful holding environment possible when working with community cats. Feral and poorly socialized cats, as well as tame cats that have been through the traumatic experience of being captured in a live trap, should all be assumed to be highly stressed. The entire process can induce fear and terror in these animals, and truly feral cats will not be able to adapt. They simply will not be able to learn to accept handling and will not acclimate to their captive environment. Although it is impossible to eliminate fear responses in feral cats, caregivers can help these cats cope during the time they must be confined to undergo procedures by actively working to create the least stressful holding environment possible and by limiting their exposure to people and other stimuli as much as possible. Environmental management should include practices to minimize and mitigate cat stress and fear. A calm and quiet environment is essential, and trapped cats should be left undisturbed as much as possible. Only when necessary for proper care and monitoring should caregivers disturb cats in any way. Caregivers should always move slowly and deliberately around cats to avoid startling or overwhelming them. Caregivers should work to actively reduce potential stressors and fear-inducing stimuli such as loud noises, intense or overwhelming stimuli, and interruptions. Cats should always be visually shielded from stimuli; covering traps and other enclosures containing cats is crucial to reduce the impact of threatening stimuli. Cats must always be protected from the sight and sound of dogs. Creature comforts, such as bedding, should be provided whenever possible. The way in which the holding environment is managed will have a profound influence on the emotional responses and well-being of cats undergoing TNR procedures. In addition to environmental management, the use of oral gabapentin may also help reduce fear responses during the TNR process.25 Box 48.3 describes the use of oral gabapentin in community cats. Because they are not socialized to people, capture and handling is extremely stressful for feral cats. In addition to environmental management, proper education of caregivers and veterinary staff on the use of equipment to facilitate a “hands-off” approach is key to minimizing stress and fear while keeping caregivers and cats safe. In most instances, cats should be humanely trapped using commercial live traps (Fig. 48.4). For cats that are elusive, a drop trap is a humane alternative, but requires substantial time and patience to implement successfully (Fig. 48.5, Once captured, cats may be held securely in the covered trap while awaiting surgery. Transferring them to larger enclosures increases the risk of human injury as well as cat escape. Indeed, if provided an opportunity, most cats will successfully escape, and serious injury can occur when people attempt to recapture them. In addition, escaped cats can be destructive as they attempt to hide and resist recapture. Another advantage of keeping cats confined in traps is that the administration of anesthesia is simple and can be done without extensive handling, thereby minimizing stress, and enhancing safety for cats and personnel. For these reasons, feral cats are often held in traps and only removed once they have been heavily sedated or anesthetized. At the completion of surgery and before awakening, they can be returned to the trap for recovery. With this system, cats are never handled while conscious, and there are no opportunities for escape or injury. And, importantly, they do not sustain additional stress from unnecessary handling. This system of holding has the advantage of being practical and safe for handlers and cats, and is appropriate for short-term holding (e.g., 1 to 3 days). However, although this holding method has many advantages, holding a cat in such a small space even for a short period of time is not ideal in terms of welfare. The ability to transfer cats to larger enclosures for holding might enhance welfare if it could be done without inducing greater stress or risking escape or injury. In this case, the potential benefits of the cat being housed in a larger enclosure (e.g., space to move about, access to a litter box) would need to outweigh the risks associated with transfer and handling. Specialized equipment, such as enclosures equipped with guillotine-style transfer doors and squeeze cages or cat dens, could provide a means of safe transfer and minimize handling. Such enclosures would need to be set up and equipped so that food, water, and litter could be provided without risking escape, inducing stress, or jeopardizing the safety of caregivers. Transferring cats from traps to other enclosures in and of itself can induce stress and is only appropriate if it can be accomplished in a low-stress and foolproof manner that eliminates the possibility of escape. Transferring a cat from a trap to a carrier or other container with a swinging door rather than a guillotine-style door is not appropriate because of the risk of escape. Although at first glance it may seem that the risk of escape is small, feral cats often defy gravity and can be uncanny in their ability to seize even the briefest opportunity to escape. For more information on handling equipment and transferring cats between enclosures, refer to the section entitled “In Case of Escapes.” Some facilities that routinely handle feral cats have developed customized enclosures with built-in transfer doors and squeeze gates for housing cats awaiting surgery. However, such containment systems are not readily available and are not usually feasible in high-volume TNR programs. In most cases, the practical option is to house cats in their traps. Commercial box traps for cats are available in a variety of sizes. However, the larger traps are more appropriate for short-term housing of cats and will enhance welfare during holding. For this reason, using larger traps is preferred whenever possible. An alternate means of providing additional space for cats during holding procedures is the use of a commercially available den-to-trap connector that securely attaches a feral cat den to the end of the trap ( Before trapping, attaching two small bowls to the back corners of each trap is helpful. Plastic containers work well and can be secured using zip ties (Fig. 48.6). Having these in place before trapping makes it possible to feed and water cats safely after they are captured without opening the trap. Water can be poured into the bowl from a watering can with a long spout, and dry food can be dropped through the wire into the bowl from a safe distance (Fig. 48.7). Most live traps are activated by a foot plate. As the cat enters the open door of the trap to reach the food at the opposite end, the footplate is depressed, which, in turn, unhooks the trap door, causing it to drop and lock in the closed position (Fig. 48.8). Traps should always be covered with towels or other suitable materials (Fig. 48.9). This makes them more inviting, increasing the likelihood of a cat entering and becoming trapped. More importantly, covering the trap serves to calm the cat, decreasing stress upon capture. It is not uncommon for trapped cats to initially respond with panic. They may lunge and claw in attempts to get free. Torn claws, scraped noses, and nosebleeds are common injuries that can occur in the trapping process. Although minor, these can be disturbing to caregivers, particularly if they are unaware of this possibility. Fortunately, most cats settle down physically within a few minutes of capture. However, emotionally they remain stressed, anxious, and/or fearful, as evidenced by a tense body posture and dilated pupils. Many trapped cats tuck their feet under their body and try to hide or back into the farthest corner of the trap. Some freeze, appearing nearly catatonic, while others strike out defensively if approached, particularly feral tomcats. Even the tamest house cats that are trapped or otherwise very stressed may exhibit the same behaviors as feral cats. Clients planning to implement a TNR program should be instructed to contact people around the area where they intend to trap to explain their intentions. Neighbors should be asked to keep pet cats inside and to refrain from feeding outdoor cats during the trapping period. Caregivers should discontinue feeding of cats for 24 to 48 hours prior to trapping to ensure they are hungry enough to enter baited traps. Setting traps in place as much as 2 days before the planned surgery day is usually the best approach to ensure successful capture. Trapping further in advance is not recommended, because it leads to prolonged holding times and increased stress. Whenever possible, trapping should continue until all members of a colony have been captured. When only a few members of the colony are captured at the outset, the remaining members may prove very difficult to capture in subsequent attempts, prolonging the process and complicating successful colony management. Clients must be cautioned about the importance of safe handling. In endemic areas, they should receive rabies pre-exposure vaccination for their own protection. At a minimum, they should be advised that if they are scratched or bitten, they should not release the animal and should immediately contact a physician as well as the local health department or other appropriate agency for advice. Additional client instructions for trapping and holding cats are provided in While water should never be withheld, food should be withheld for an appropriate period prior to surgery:26,27 Most often, the role of the veterinarian begins with the arrival of a trapped cat at the practice. Caregivers should be required to present cats for surgery in covered traps. From the time they arrive at the clinic, care should be taken not to place cats within spatial, visual, or auditory range of other species, especially dogs. Traps containing cats should be placed in quiet holding areas until the time of surgery. Prior to surgery, injectable anesthetic agents should be administered while the cat remains in the trap. This is accomplished by quietly but quickly standing the trap on one end and using a commercially available trap divider to confine the cat. This allows administration of an intramuscular injection between the bars of the trap (Fig. 48.10). Feral cats should be returned to clean traps following surgery and monitored until they are sternal. A safe heat source, such as warm air or a carefully monitored heat lamp, should be used to ensure adequate warming during recovery (Fig. 48.11). Placing shredded paper in the trap will help insulate and protect the cats during recovery. Cats should be hospitalized in traps overnight after surgery. At the veterinarian’s discretion, they may be discharged the same day as surgery, but caregivers should be instructed to hold them overnight to allow for a full recovery (e.g., return of normal mental status and motor coordination) prior to being returned to their environment. Additional discharge instructions for caregivers are provided in It is imperative that caregivers understand the crucial importance of returning cats to their original home site. Release of cats to new areas, even those that may seem protected (e.g., a barn on private property) should only be done as a last resort and with careful consideration and planning (see Relocation of Cats, later). Releasing a cat in an unfamiliar area is analogous to a person being lost without a map or a method of communication to get home. Originally, the phrase trap-neuter-release was commonly used; however, the name quickly changed to trap-neuter-return to reflect the importance of returning a cat to its home colony. Emphasizing that the “R” stands for “return” remains important today, because well-meaning caregivers often consider releasing cats in new locations, not understanding the implications of their actions. In addition to creating serious welfare issues for cats, random release of cats constitutes abandonment and may be illegal. When care is taken to adhere to the recommended practices for handling and holding feral cats, escapes should not occur. However, accidents do happen and being prepared with appropriate equipment and knowledge is essential to reduce the chance of injury or damage should a cat escape and need to be recaptured. When working with cats, exit doors should always remain securely closed to prevent outdoor escapes. Nets are the safest and most humane tool for capture of a loose cat indoors. Alternatively, it may be possible or even necessary to use a live trap to recapture a loose cat. However, many cats will resist entering a trap once they have been already captured this way. When used properly, nets minimize stress, prevent injury to the cat, and ensure human safety. In contrast, the use of control poles (snare poles) to capture cats poses significant risk of injury to the animal and exacerbates stress. For these reasons, their use is considered inhumane and must be strictly avoided. Several commercial cat nets are available. In some cases, the design allows the user to close the net using a special sliding mechanism on the handle (Fig. 48.12). This type of net (often called a cage net) is designed for use when a cat is enclosed in a cage or other confined space. Other nets have a flexible rim that will allow the operator to press the opening of the net flat against the floor without placing the handle on the floor, as is required when using a net with a rigid rim. Such nets are more useful for capture in an open space. Although less sophisticated, fishing nets can also be used to humanely capture cats. In this case, the net should be placed over the cat and the rim held firmly against the floor. As the cat backs away, it will step over the rim of the net. The net can then be lifted, and the weight of the cat will effectively close the opening, securing the cat and preventing escape ( Once a cat is securely netted, chemical restraint may be administered through the netting. Covering the cat with a thick towel or blanket will aid in safe and humane restraint while an injectable sedative is administered. Once the cat is immobilized, it can be removed from the net. Alternatively, the cat can be transferred in the net to an enclosure without the use of sedatives. Returning a netted cat to a trap can be tricky. Instead, the cat can be released into a larger cage containing a commercially available feral cat den. As previously described, cat dens are designed as secure boxes for feral or reactive cats. In addition to being equipped with a guillotine-style door, cat dens also have a side portal which can easily be closed from a distance (Fig. 48.13). In addition to use as hiding boxes, cat dens can be used to facilitate safe transfer of cats to other enclosures with guillotine-style doors, including commercially available box traps, transfer cages (Fig. 48.14), or squeeze cages (Fig. 48.15). The latter can be used to facilitate administration of injections. Alternatively, a commercially available hand shield can be used to facilitate administration of injections to a cat in a den (
Care and Control of Community Cats
Abstract
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
Procedure
Rationale
Short-term holding prior to surgery (e.g., 12 to 48 hours).
Avoids prolonged confinement-related stress while providing quiet time for acclimation; some cats that were initially reactive with feral behaviors may turn out to be tame.
Balanced anesthesia administered by intramuscular injection.
Essential to ensure smooth induction and proper analgesia with minimal handling to decrease stress and optimize staff safety.
Physical examination once ready for surgery, including scanning for a microchip.
To identify physical problems and help determine if the cat is owned.
Warm subcutaneous fluid administration for cats that are pregnant, lactating, or dehydrated.
Promotes normal hydration and prevention of complications related to dehydration and hypothermia.
Ear tipping.
Identifies cats as neutered, vaccinated members of a managed colony.
Administering a rabies vaccine in endemic areas (preferably a 3-year product when available).
Affords protection against an important disease of public health significance.
Administering a modified live FVRCP vaccine (preferably one with an extended duration of immunity when available).
Affords protection against common and life-threatening viral diseases.
Administering one dose of ivermectin 1% solution (0.3 mg/kg, subcutaneously).
Treats ear mite infestations and temporarily limits roundworm and hookworm infestations; cost effective at only pennies per dose.
Holding overnight after surgery prior to release.
Ensures cats are fully alert and physically coordinated for safe release.
Return to original colony site.
Cats possess strong homing instincts, and release to a foreign location is not humane unless careful relocation procedures are followed.
COMMUNITY CATS DEFINED
CONTROLLING COMMUNITY CATS
Trap-Neuter-Return and Return-to-Field Programs
Safe and Humane Capture, Holding, and Handling
Environmental Management
Using a Hands-Off Approach
Video 48.1).
e-Fig. 48.1). A cat den is a specially designed secure box that is equipped with a guillotine door to facilitate the safe holding and transfer of cats.
Field Capture
e-Handout 48.1.
In-Clinic Procedures
e-Handout 48.2.
Return to the Colony
In Case of Escape
e-Fig. 48.2). However, leaving the net open at the top with the cat hanging in the bottom will likely result in a second escape and is not safe for the cat or handler.
e-Fig. 48.3).
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