Chapter 5 Birds
Agent | Dosage | Species/Comments |
---|---|---|
Amikacin | — | Least nephrotoxic of the aminoglycosides;165 maintain hydration during use5 |
7 mg/kg IV q24h344 | Emus/PD; mean serum levels declined below a target trough of 4 μg/mL at 24 hr | |
7.6 mg/kg IM q8h383 | Ostriches/PD; causes myositis; painful injection | |
10 mg/kg IM q12h577 | Cranes | |
10 mg/kg SC, IM q8h × 14 days426 | Ring-necked pheasants/PD; renal toxicosis appeared at 11 days; uric acid levels abnormal up to 7 days after cessation | |
10-15 mg/kg IM q24h363 | Raptors | |
10-15 mg/kg IM q12h481 | Amazon parrots, cockatiels, cockatoos/PD | |
10-15 mg/kg IM, IV q8-12h702,812 | Most species, including psittacines | |
10-20 mg/kg IM, IV q8-12h303 | African grey parrots/PD | |
15 mg/kg IM q12h724 | Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD | |
15 mg/kg IV q8h724 | Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD | |
15-20 mg/kg/day divided q8-24h73 | Red-tailed hawks/PD; use low end of dose range for smaller hawks | |
15-20 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q8-12h200 | Passerines, pigeons/5 days maximum693 | |
15-20 mg/kg IM q8-12h643 | Cockatiels/PD | |
15-30 mg/kg IM q12-24h200,824 | Most species, including passerines/use in combination with other agents for Mycobacterium; see Table 5-45 | |
20 mg/kg IM q12h1 | Ostriches (chicks)/administer concurrent to piperacillin (100 mg/kg q12h) | |
20 mg/kg IM q8h214 | Chickens/PD | |
528 mg/L drinking water810 | Ratites/egg dip | |
3 g/40 packet bone cement814 | PMMA bead formation (1:14 ratio); same dose for all aminoglycoside beads | |
Amoxicillin/clavulanate (Clavamox, Pfizer) | — | β-lactamase inhibitor; use with allopurinol is contraindicated5 |
7-14 mg/kg IM q24h102 | Ostriches | |
10-15 mg/kg PO q12h810 | Ratites | |
60-120 mg/kg IM q8-12h201 | Collared doves/PD | |
125 mg/kg PO q12h259,609 | Most species, including pigeons, psittacines, raptors | |
125 mg/kg PO q6h147 | Psittacines | |
125 mg/kg PO q8h586 | Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD | |
125-250 mg/kg PO q8-12h201 | Collared doves/PD | |
500 mg/L drinking water872 | Chickens/PD | |
Amoxicillin sodium | 50 mg/kg IM q12-24h199 | Pigeons/PD; gram-positive bacteria |
100 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h702 | Bustards/PD; administer q4h IM or q8h IV to maintain blood levels >2 mg/mL | |
150 mg/kg IM q8h696 | Passerines, soft bills | |
250 mg/kg IM q12-24h195,199 | Pigeons/PD; gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria | |
Amoxicillin trihydrate | — | Broad-spectrum bactericidal penicillin antibiotic;5 minimal activity for common gram-negative infections of birds;702 because amoxicillin has a relatively low availability after oral administration, higher doses are needed in birds to achieve the same peak levels as in mammals204 |
15-22 mg/kg PO q8h810 | Ratites | |
20 mg/kg PO q12-24h197 | Pigeons/PD; mean half-life 66 min | |
30 mg/kg IM q12h × 5 days102 | Pigeons | |
40-80 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days102 | Pigeons | |
55-110 mg/kg PO q12h320 | Pigeons | |
100 mg/kg PO q12-24h205 | Pigeons/PD | |
100 mg/kg PO q8h50 | Most species, including raptors | |
100-150 mg/kg PO q12h149 | Raptors | |
100-200 mg/kg PO, IM q4-8h205 | Pigeons | |
150 mg/kg SC, IM q24h × 5 days (administer q48h with long-acting preparation)702 | Pigeons | |
150 mg/kg PO, IV750 | Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis | |
150-175 mg/kg PO q12h147,409 | Passerines (towhees), psittacines | |
150-175 mg/kg PO q4-8h696,812 | Pigeons, psittacines | |
65 mg/L drinking water810 | Ratites | |
200-400 mg/L drinking water312 | Canaries/aviary use | |
330 mg/L drinking water,63 provide on alternate days × 3 treatments119 | Waterfowl | |
500-800 mg/L drinking water320 | Pigeons | |
1500 mg/L drinking water × 5 days750 | Pigeons/S. bovis | |
1500-4500 mg/L drinking water147 | Psittacines | |
300-500 mg/kg soft feed312 | Canaries/aviary use | |
600 mg/kg soft feed147 | Psittacines | |
Ampicillin sodium | 50 mg/kg IM q6-8h218 | Amazon parrots/PD; localized infections |
100 mg/kg IM q4h218 | Amazon parrots/PD | |
150 mg/kg q12-24h IM195,199 | Pigeons/PD | |
150 mg/kg IM q12-24h198 | Passerines, soft bills | |
150-200 mg/kg PO q8-12h218 | Amazon parrots/PD; therapeutic levels not achieved in blue-naped Amazons at this dosage | |
174 mg/kg PO q24h181 | Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis | |
528 mg/L drinking water181 | Pigeons/PD; S. bovis | |
Ampicillin trihydrate | — | Broad-spectrum bactericidal penicillin antibiotic; minimal activity for common gram-negative infections of birds; poor gastrointestinal absorption; may be useful for treating sensitive gastrointestinal infections702 |
4-7 mg/kg SC, IM q8h810 | Ratites (excluding emus) | |
11-15 mg/kg PO q8h810 | Ratites | |
15 mg/kg IM q12h100 | Raptors/PD | |
15-20 mg/kg SC, IM q12h100,384,511 | Emus, cranes (PD) | |
25 mg/kg PO q12-24h195,199 | Pigeons/PD | |
55-110 mg/kg IM q8-12h321 | Poultry | |
100 mg/kg PO q12-24h195,199 | Pigeon/PD | |
100 mg/kg IM q12h577 | Cranes | |
100 mg/kg IM q4h134,702,812 | Most species, including psittacines | |
100-200 mg/kg PO q6-8h702,812 | Psittacines | |
155 mg/kg IM q12-24h205 | Pigeons/PD; amoxicillin preferred over ampicillin for IM use in pigeons | |
170 mg/L drinking water102 | Game birds | |
1000 mg/L drinking water671 | Galliformes/flock use | |
1000-2000 mg/L drinking water312 | Canaries/aviary use | |
2000-3000 mg/kg soft feed312 | Canaries/aviary use | |
Apramycin (Apralan, Elanco) | — | Aminoglycoside; nephrotoxic; therapeutic levels not achieved in Japanese quail at 50 mg/kg IV;444 not available in the United States |
250-500 mg/L drinking water102 | Gamebirds | |
500 mg powder/L drinking water64,787 | Psittacines, chickens/Pseudomonas | |
Arsanilic acid (sodium arsanilate or P-amino-benzenearsonic acid) (Pro-Gen, Vétoquinol) | 100 mg/kg feed787 | Poultry/do not use in ducks and geese |
Azithromycin (Zithromax, Pfizer) | — | Newer-generation macrolide indicated for intracellular infections including Toxoplasma, Plasmodium, Chlamydophila, and Cryptosporidium |
10-20 mg/kg PO q48h × 5 treatments117 | Blue and gold macaws/PD; nonintracellular infections | |
40 mg/kg PO q24h × 30 days117 | Blue and gold macaws/PD; intracellular infections (i.e., Chlamydophila) | |
40 mg/kg PO q48h × 21 days305 | Cockatiels/PD; Chlamydophila | |
43-45 mg/kg PO q24h200,695 | Most species including psittacines, passerines/intracellular infections including Mycobacterium; used with ethambutol and rifabutin (see Table 5-45) | |
50-80 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days on, off 4 days, repeat up to 3 wk672 | Most species/Mycoplasma; do not use if hepatic or renal disease; can mix with lactulose (stable refrigerated for 3-4 wk) | |
Bacitracin methylene disalicylate (Solutracin 200, A.L. Laboratories; BMD Soluble, Alpharma) | 50-400 mg/L drinking water384,810 | Ratites/Clostridium perfringens; prepare daily |
220 mg/L119 | Quail/Clostridium perfringens | |
55-220 mg/kg feed511 | Quail | |
100-500 mg/kg feed102 | Ostriches <3 mo of age | |
Carbenicillin (Geocillin, Roerig; Pyopen, SmithKline Beechum) | — | Extended-spectrum penicillin effective against gram-negative bacteria, especially Pseudomonas, Proteus702 |
11-15 mg/kg IV q8h810 | Ratites | |
100 mg/kg PO q12h518 | Most species | |
100 mg/kg IM q8h47 | Most species | |
100 mg/kg IT q24h134 | Most species/Pseudomonas respiratory infections | |
100-200 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h113,200,323,672,702,812 | Most species, including psittacines, passerines, soft bills, pigeons, cranes, raptors | |
250 mg/kg IM q12h653 | Raptors | |
1058 mg/L drinking water518 | Most species | |
Cefadroxil | — | First-generation cephalosporin |
20 mg/kg PO q12h841 | Ratites | |
100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days320,692 | Most psittacines, pigeons/14-21 day therapy may be indicated for severe or deep pyodermas | |
Cefazolin | — | First-generation cephalosporin |
22-110 mg/kg IM q8-12h321 | Poultry | |
25-30 mg/kg IM, IV q8h111 | Cranes | |
25-50 mg/kg IM, IV q12h672 | Most species | |
50-75 mg/kg IM q12h692 | Most species | |
50-100 mg/kg PO, IM q12h622 | Raptors | |
Cefotaxime (Claforan, Hoechst-Roussel) | — | Third-generation cephalosporin with broad-spectrum activity for many gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens;702 penetrates cerebrospinal fluid5 |
25 mg/kg IM q8h813 | Ratites/young birds | |
50-100 mg/kg IM q8-12h577 | Cranes | |
75-100 mg/kg IM q12h363 | Raptors | |
75-100 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h50,200,702,812 | Most species, including soft bills, psittacines, passerines | |
100 mg/kg IM q8-12h320 | Pigeons | |
Cefovecin (Convenia, Pfizer) | 10 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q1h718,804 | Pigeons, chickens/PD; not recommended for use in birds due to short ½ life; cannot be used q14d as in dogs and cats |
Cefoxitin | — | Second-generation cephalosporin with a wide range of activity against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria |
50-75 mg/kg IM, IV q6-8h200,813 | Most species, including soft bills | |
50-100 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h672,812 | Psittacines | |
Cefquinome | 5 mg/kg IM q24h865 | Ducks/broad-spectrum cephalosporin; no effect PO |
Ceftazidime | — | Broad-spectrum third-generation cephalosporin; penetrates central nervous system5 |
50-100 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h244,696 | Most species | |
Ceftiofur (Naxcel, Pfizer) | — | Broad-spectrum third-generation cephalosporin with activity against Pasteurella, E. coli, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Salmonella5 |
0.16 mg/chick SC q24h796 | Chickens (chicks)/PD; treatment of early mortality associated with E. coli | |
0.17-0.5 mg/poult SC q24h796 | Turkeys | |
2-4 mg/kg SC q24h128 | Ducks | |
2.8-5.8 mg/kg SC q24h796 | Turkeys (poults)/PD; treatment of early mortality associated with E. coli | |
10 mg/kg IM q8-12h796 | Orange-winged Amazon parrots/PD | |
10 mg/kg IM q4h796 | Cockatiels/PD; higher doses may be required for resistant infections | |
10 mg/kg IM q72hb | Guineafowl/PD | |
10-20 mg/kg IM q12h1,841 | Ratites | |
50 mg/kg IM q12h1 | Ostrich chicks | |
50-100 mg/kg q4-8h200,702,812 | Most species, including psittacines and passerines | |
Ceftriaxone | — | Third-generation cephalosporin; effective against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria including some activity against Pseudomonas702 |
75-100 mg/kg IM q4-8h239,702,812 | Most species | |
100 mg/kg IM q4h405 | Chickens/PD | |
Cephalexin | — | First-generation cephalosporin; active against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including E. coli and Proteus, but not Pseudomonas; useful for Staphylococcus dermatitis5 |
15-22 mg/kg PO q8h810 | Ratites (excluding emus) | |
35-50 mg/kg PO, IM q6-8h99,106,363,577 | Pigeons, emus, cranes, raptors, psittacines >500 g/dose psittacines q6h | |
35-50 mg/kg IM q2-3h99,147 | Quail, ducks (PD), psittacines <500 g | |
40-100 mg/kg PO, IM q6-8h47,63,200,702,812 | Most species, including raptors, psittacines, passerines | |
50 mg/kg PO q6h × 3-5 days102,534 | Raptors, pigeons | |
55-110 mg/kg PO q12h321 | Poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus | |
100 mg/kg PO q8-12h320 | Pigeons/14-21 day therapy may be indicated for severe or deep pyodermas | |
100 mg/kg PO q4-6h99 | Pigeons, emus, cranes/PD | |
Cephalothin | — | First-generation cephalosporin |
30-40 mg/kg IM, IV q6h810 | Ratites (excluding emus) | |
100 mg/kg IM q8-12h363 | Raptors | |
100 mg/kg IM, IV q6-8h134,810 | Most species, including psittacines, ratites | |
100 mg/kg IM q6h99 | Pigeons, emus, cranes/PD | |
100 mg/kg IM, IV q2-6h200 | Passerines | |
100 mg/kg IM q2-3h99 | Quail, ducks/PD | |
Cephradine | — | First-generation cephalosporin |
35-50 mg/kg PO q4-6h671 | Most species/14-21 day therapy may be indicated for severe or deep pyodermas | |
100 mg/kg PO q4-6h671 | Pigeons, emus, cranes | |
Chloramphenicol palmitate (oral suspension) | — | Not for use in food animals;332 wear gloves; bone marrow suppression (irreversible aplastic anemia in humans); potential nephrotoxicity; bacteriostatic activity;614 mainly excreted after biotransformation; because large differences in pharmacokinetics exist between birds and mammals, and even between avian species, extrapolation between species is ill-advised204 |
25 mg/kg PO q8h × 5 days102 | Pigeons | |
30-50 mg/kg PO q6-8h702,811,812 | Psittacines, including budgerigars | |
35-50 mg/kg PO q8h × 3 days810 | Ratites | |
50 mg/kg PO q6-12h16,363,673 | Raptors, galliformes (turkeys) | |
50-100 mg/kg PO q6-12h45,200 | Most species, including passerines | |
250 mg/kg PO q6h320 | Pigeons | |
100-200 mg/L drinking water672 | Canaries | |
Chloramphenicol succinate | 22 mg/kg IM, IV q3h182 | Ducks (PD), raptors |
30 mg/kg IM q8h × 3-5 days259 | Raptors | |
35-50 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q8h × 3 days810 | Ratites | |
50 mg/kg IM q6h129 | Macaws, conures (PD) | |
50 mg/kg IM q8-12h200 | Passerines | |
50 mg/kg IM q24h129 | Peafowl, eagles (PD) | |
50 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h129,200,702 | Most species, including budgerigars, passerines, pigeons, raptors, chickens, turkeys, geese (PD),129 ducks | |
50-80 mg/kg IM q12-24h200 | Passerines | |
60-100 mg/kg IM q8h323 | Pigeons | |
79 mg/kg IM q12h129 | Turkeys/PD | |
100 mg/kg SC q8h577 | Cranes | |
100 mg/kg IM q6h200 | Passerines | |
200 mg/kg IM q12h × 5 days372 | Budgerigars/PD | |
Chlorhexidine | 2.6-7.9 mL of 2% solution/L drinking water673,779 | Most species/bacterial infection; topical application may be fatal to nun and parrot finches672 |
7.9 mL/L water810 | Ratites/egg disinfectant spray at 104-108°F (40-42°C) | |
Chlorine (Na hypochlorite) | 5 mg/L drinking water692 | Water disinfectant; 0.1 mL of 5.25% bleach/L approximates this concentration |
Chlortetracycline (Aureomycin Soluble Powder, Cyanamid) | — | Broad-spectrum activity against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; flock treatment of Chlamydophila, although doxycycline is preferred;702 outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic270 |
6-10 mg/kg IM q24h341 | Raptors | |
15-20 mg/kg PO q8h810 | Ratites | |
40-50 mg/kg PO q8h (w/grit) or q12h (w/o grit) | Pigeons/PD | |
100 mg/kg PO q6h147 | Psittacines | |
250 mg/kg PO q24h341 | Raptors | |
40-120 mg/L drinking water102 | Galliformes (game birds) | |
130-400 mg/L drinking water320,702,808 | Pigeons | |
500 mg/L drinking water or nectar133,134 | Most species/prepare fresh q8-12h | |
1000-1500 mg/L drinking water147,197 | Canaries, psittacines/prophylaxis against Chlamydophila | |
5000 mg/L drinking water × 45 days147 | Psittacines/Chlamydophila | |
100 mg/kg feed808 | Pigeons/Salmonella | |
200-600 mg/kg feed102 | Galliformes | |
300-400 mg/kg feed119 | Waterfowl/colibacillosis, Chlamydophila, Salmonella | |
500 mg/kg feed199 | Budgerigars/Chlamydophila | |
1000 mg/kg feed63 | Waterfowl | |
1000-2000 mg/kg soft mixed feed × 45 days64,197,198 | Most psittacines, canaries | |
2500 mg/kg feed873 and 2500 mg/L drinking water | Chickens, turkeys/PD; simultaneous medication of feed and water required to reach therapeutic level | |
5000 mg/kg soft feed × 45 days147 | Psittacines/Chlamydophila | |
0.5% pellets × 30-45 days47,133,134,196 | Small psittacines/reduce calcium content of diet to 0.7% | |
1% pellets × 30-45 days196,242,252 | Large psittacines/reduce calcium content of diet to 0.7% | |
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro, Bayer) | — | Broad-spectrum quinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds in the United States258 |
2 mg/kg IV552 | Chicks/no toxic effects observed | |
3-6 mg/kg PO q12h810 | Ratites | |
5 mg/kg/day PO × 5 days282 | Chickens/PD | |
5-20 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-7 days693 | Pigeons | |
10 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days2 | Ostrich chicks | |
10-20 mg/kg PO q12h215,363 | Raptors, chickens | |
15-20 mg/kg PO, IM q12h47,200,811,812 | Most species, including psittacines, passerines | |
20-40 mg/kg PO, IV q12h511,672 | Most species, including psittacines, canaries, raptors | |
50 mg/kg PO q12h370 | Raptors/PD | |
80 mg/kg PO q24h824 | Most species/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) | |
250 mg/L drinking water × 5-10 days693 | Pigeons | |
Clarithromycin (Biaxin, Abbott) | — | Broad-spectrum new generation macrolide; frequently used in combination with other drugs for mycobacteriosis (see Table 5-45) |
10 mg/kg PO q24h559 | Penguins | |
60 mg/kg q24h452 | Psittacines | |
85 mg/kg PO q24h695 | Most species/Mycobacterium; allometrically scaled | |
Clindamycin | — | Lincosamide; indicated for bone, joint, and tendon sheath infections; may be used for up to 12 wk without ill effects;702 monitor kidney and liver with long-term use as well as for yeast overgrowth |
5.5 mg/kg PO q8h534 | Ostriches | |
12.5 mg/kg PO q12h313 | Great horned owls/skin grafts; given in combination with enrofloxacin | |
25 mg/kg PO q8h242 | Psittacines, raptors | |
50 mg/kg PO q8-12h244 | Most species/7-10 day course recommended for raptors with osteomyelitis63 | |
100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days200,242,363,673,702,812 | Most species, including psittacines, passerines, raptors, pigeons, quail/Clostridium | |
100 mg/kg PO q12h609 × 7 days | Psittacines | |
150 mg/kg PO q24h302 | Pigeons, raptors/osteomyelitis | |
200 mg/L drinking water157 | Pigeons | |
Clofazimine (Lamprene, Novartis) | 1-5 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-12 mo63,64,702 | Psittacines, raptors/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) |
6 mg/kg PO q12h695,824 | Most species/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) | |
6-12 mg/kg PO q24h200,452 | Passerines/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) | |
Cloxacillin | — | Penicillin effective against many gram-positive organisms; recommended in the treatment of pododermatitis702 |
100-200 mg/kg IM q24h534 | Most species | |
250 mg/kg PO q24h500 | Most species | |
250 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-10 days63 | Raptors | |
Cycloserine (Seromycin, Lilly) | 5 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 3-12 mo63,702 | Raptors/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) |
Danofloxacin mesylate (A180, Pfizer) | — | Fluoroquinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds in the United States258 |
5 mg/kg PO, IM, IV215,521,787 | Hyacinth macaws, chickens (PD)/higher therapeutic efficacy of water medication for enrofloxacin compared to danofloxacin can be expected when given at 5 mg/kg422 | |
50 mg/L in drinking water × 3 days525,672,788 | Chicken chicks/Mycoplasma | |
Doxycycline (Vibramycin, Pfizer) | — | Drug of choice for Chlamydophila, Mycoplasma; products or foods containing Al, Ca, Mg, and Fe reduce or alter absorption although doxycycline has a relatively low affinity for calcium binding;206 outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic;270 12.5-25 mg/kg PO q12-24h resulted in elevations in AST and serum bile acids as well as hepatocellular damage in lorikeets875 |
2-3.5 mg/kg PO q12h810 | Ratites | |
7.5-8 mg/kg PO q12-24h195,672 | Passerines, nectar feeders, pigeons/PD; administer without grit197 | |
8-25 mg/kg PO q12h119 | Waterfowl | |
10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days102 | Pigeons | |
25 mg/kg (w/grit) PO q12h878 | Pigeons/PD | |
25 mg/kg PO q12h397 | Psittacines, raptors/some gram-negative bacterial infections and possibly Leucocytozoon | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h198,242,363,811,812 | Most species, including parrots (African grey parrots, Amazon parrots, cockatoos, macaws) and pigeons/may cause regurgitation; use low end of dose range for macaws and cockatoos | |
35 mg/kg PO q24h × 21 days305 | Cockatiels/PD; Chlamydophila | |
40 mg/kg PO q24h181 | Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis | |
50 mg/kg PO q12h63 | Waterfowl | |
100 mg/L drinking water221 | Chickens/PD | |
130 mg/L drinking water147 | Psittacines | |
200 mg/L drinking water222 | Pigeons | |
250 mg/L drinking water197 | Canaries | |
265-525 mg/L drinking water321 | Poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus; can use in combination with tylosin | |
280 mg/L drinking water626 | Cockatiels/see Table 5-41 for recipe | |
400 mg/L drinking water225 | Cockatiels/PD; spiral bacteria | |
500 mg/L drinking water147,181 | Psittacines, pigeons/PD; S. bovis | |
500 mg/L drinking water591 | Fruit doves/PD; erratic drug concentrations (while most birds reached or exceeded therapeutic drug levels, some birds did not) | |
800 mg/L drinking water (mix the contents of 16 x 100 mg capsules with 2 L water; make fresh daily)249 | African grey parrots, Goffin’s cockatoos/PD; protect solution from exposure to light | |
250-300 mg/kg seed63,241 | Waterfowl, budgerigars (PD) | |
500 mg/kg wet weight seeds626 | Cockatiels/PD; see Table 5-41 for recipe | |
1000 mg/kg feed197,198,630 | Large psittacines on dehulled seed (PD), macaws on corn (PD), canaries, large psittacines on soft feed (10 mg/mL syrup mixed into 29% kidney beans, 29% canned corn, 29% cooked rice, 13% dry oatmeal cereal) | |
Doxycycline (Vibravenös, Pfizer) | — | Not available in the United States without written permission by Food and Drug Administration |
25-50 mg/kg IM q5-7d × 5-7 treatments696,811 | Psittacines | |
60-100 mg/kg SC, IM q5-7d197 | Psittacines, pigeons/PD | |
75 mg/kg IM q7d × 4-6 wk50,63 | Macaws, waterfowl | |
75-100 mg/kg IM q5-7d × 4-6 wk50,696,811 | Psittacines, including macaws, budgerigars | |
100 mg/kg SC, IM q5-7d × 7 doses300 | Houbara bustards/PD; Chlamydophila | |
Doxycycline (Pharmacist-compounded micronized doxycycline hyclate) | 75-100 mg/kg IM q7d696 | Cockatoos/anecdotal reports of sudden death with compounded product; inadequate drug levels achieved in cockatiels at 100 mg/kg IM q10d;626 adequate drug levels achieved with 100 mg/kg given IM in cockatoos, Amazon parrots and SC in African grey parrots, but severe soft tissue reactions seen246 |
Doxycycline hyclate (Vibramycin injection, Pfizer) | — | Cardiovascular collapse associated with the propylene glycol carrier can occur after rapid IV injection270 |
25-50 mg/kg slow bolus IV q24h × 3 days696 | Psittacines | |
75-100 mg/kg SC, IM q5-7d195 | Pigeons/PD | |
Doxycycline (Doxirobe gel, Pharmacia) | Topical761 | Most species/apply to beak or pododermatitis lesions; use in conjuction with debridement; antibiotic is released for 28 days |
Enrofloxacin (Baytril, Bayer) | — | Broad-spectrum quinolone;258 compounds containing Ca, Al, Fe, Mg, Zn interfere with absorption |
Administration may be associated with emesis;702 given PO, the IM formulation produces therapeutic plasma concentration;363 IM formulation is extremely alkaline (painful) and should not be given repeatedly; best to avoid IV use in birds; fluoroquinolones may be used in PMMA beads with success211 | ||
Joint deformities reported in squab chondrocytes with 200-800 mg/L drinking water;432 however enrofloxacin has been commonly used at the recommended dosages without reports of adverse effects;250,672 no detected effect on cartilage in day-old chicks606 | ||
Administration of the total daily dose to chickens over 2-4 hr (pulse dosing) has been recommended by some765 | ||
1.5-2.5 mg/kg PO, SC q12h810 | Ratites | |
2.2 mg/kg IV q12h345 | Emus/PD | |
5 mg/kg SC, IM q12h811 | Cockatiels | |
5 mg/kg PO, IM q12-24h811 | African grey parrots | |
5 mg/kg IM q12h × 2 days810 | Ratites | |
5 mg/kg/day PO × 5 days282 | Chickens/PD; accumulates in eggs | |
5-10 mg/kg SC, IM q24h197,199 | African grey parrots | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q8h | Passerines, pigeons (PD) | |
5-15 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q12h323,363,696,702,812 | Raptors, psittacines, pigeons/drug of choice for Salmonella typhimurium | |
5-20 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 5-10 days102,811 | Pigeons | |
10 mg/kg PO q12h113 | Cockatiels | |
10 mg/kg PO q12h × 4 days25 | Chickens/PD; high efficacy for intestinal salmonellosis | |
10-15 mg/kg PO, IM q12h × 5-7 days702 | Raptors, waterfowl including Muscovy, Pekin ducklings/Riemerella (Pasteurella) | |
10-20 mg/kg PO q24h197,200 | Passerines, psittacines, pigeons (PD) | |
15 mg/kg PO q24h609 | Psittacines | |
15 mg/kg PO q12h1,475 | Ostrich chicks, pigeons (administration to adult birds led to therapeutic levels in crop milk) | |
15 mg/kg PO, IM, IV q12h326 | Raptors/PD; IV administration in owls may result in weakness, tachycardia, vasoconstriction | |
15 mg/kg PO, SC q12h244 | Most species | |
15-30 mg/kg PO, IM q12h248 | African grey parrots/PD | |
20 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q12h323,702 | Pigeons/administer parenterally, followed by oral treatment | |
20-30 mg/kg PO q12-24h222 | Pigeons | |
25 mg/kg PO, SC q24h244 | Experimental | |
30 mg/kg PO, IM q24h812 | Psittacines | |
45 mg/kg PO q24h323 | Pigeons | |
50 mg/kg via nebulization × 4 hr (day 1, AM), then 25 mg/kg × 4 hr/day × 4 days815 | Muscovy, Pekin ducklings/Riemerella (Pasteurella) | |
25-50 mg/L drinking water85 | Cranes (sandhill)/did not provide sufficient plasma levels | |
26 mg/L drinking water119 | Galliformes | |
50 mg/L drinking water342,414 | Chickens, turkeys/PD | |
50-100 mg/L drinking water102 | Gamebirds | |
100-200 mg/L drinking water197,693,702 | Psittacines, pigeons/PD; may need up to 300 mg/L to prevent recurrence of infection in pigeons702 | |
190-750 mg/L drinking water250 | African grey parrots/PD | |
200 mg/L drinking water247 | Psittacines/PD; maintains plasma concentrations adequate only for highly susceptible bacteria | |
200 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
500 mg/L drinking water467 | Psittacines | |
200 mg/kg soft feed198 | Canaries | |
250 mg/kg feed197 | Budgerigars/PD | |
250-1000 mg/kg feed q24h199,811 | Psittacines, passerines | |
500 mg/kg feed467 | Psittacines, including Patagonian conures/PD; mix into steamed corn diet | |
1000 mg/kg feed467 | Senegal parrots/PD; mix into steamed corn diet | |
0.2 mg/mL saline, flush q24h × 10 days63 | Raptors/nasal flush | |
Erythromycin | — | Macrolide; gram-positive spectrum; some activity against Mycoplasma;702 IM injection may cause severe muscle necrosis332 |
5-10 mg/kg PO q8h810 | Ratites | |
10-20 mg/kg IM q24h199 | Passerines | |
10-20 mg/kg PO q12h702 | Psittacines | |
50-100 mg/kg PO q8-12h199 | Passerines | |
55-110 mg/kg PO q12h321 | Poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus | |
60 mg/kg PO q12h354 | Most species | |
71 mg/kg PO q24h181 | Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis | |
100 mg/kg PO825 | Pigeons/PD; low plasma levels, but higher lung and trachea levels | |
125 mg/kg PO q8h320 | Pigeons | |
102 mg/L drinking water186 | Chicks/PD | |
125 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
132 mg/L drinking water (10 days on, 5 days off, 10 days on)134,198 | Most species, including canaries | |
250-500 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days147 | Psittacines | |
525-800 mg/L drinking water320 | Psittacines | |
1000 mg/L drinking water181,825 | Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis; plasma levels low; one study reported that lung and trachea levels were sub-therapeutic | |
1500 mg/L drinking water702 | Most species | |
200 mg/kg soft feed198 | Canaries, psittacines | |
Ethambutol (Myambutol, Lederle) | — | Most species/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) |
10 mg/kg PO q12h50 | Most species | |
15-20 mg/kg PO q12h × 3-12 mo63,64 | Psittacines, raptors/Mycobacterium | |
15-30 mg/kg PO q12-24h200 | Passerines/Mycobacterium | |
30 mg/kg PO q24h695 | Most species/Mycobacterium | |
Flumequine (Biocik, Amacol) | — | Quinolone; not available in the United States; may cause emesis |
30 mg/kg PO, IM q8-12h195,200 | Passerines, pigeons (PD) | |
Furazolidone (NF180, Hess and Clark) | — | Nitrofuran derivative; prohibited in food-producing birds because of its carcinogenic properties; use in birds linked with cardiomyopathy; therapeutic action is confined to the gastrointestinal tract |
15-20 mg/kg PO q24h200 | Passerines | |
100-200 mg/L drinking water672 | Canaries | |
200 mg/kg soft food672 | Canaries | |
220-440 mg/kg feed119 | Waterfowl/Salmonella | |
908 mg/kg feed808 | Pigeons/Salmonella | |
Gentamicin | — | Aminoglycoside; not generally recommended; narrow margin of safety; nephrotoxic;17,66,67 bird should be well hydrated; avoid doses higher than 2.5-5 mg/kg q8-12h67,253 |
1-2 mg/kg IM q8h810 | Ratites (excluding emus)/use only as last resort | |
2.5 mg/kg IM q8h67 | Raptors/PD | |
3-10 mg/kg IM q6-12h200 | Passerines | |
5 mg/kg IM q8h98,165,384 | Pheasants, emus (PD), cranes (PD) | |
5 mg/kg IM q12h253 | Ostriches, emus/PD; rapidly eliminated; small volume of distribution | |
5-10 mg/kg IM q8-12h643 | Cockatiels/PD | |
5-10 mg/kg IM q4h98,699 | Pigeons/PD; Salmonella | |
10 mg/kg IM q6h98,165 | Quail/PD | |
40 mg/kg PO q8-24h200 | Passerines/15-25 g BW | |
2-3 drops ophthalmic solution intranasal q8h811 | Most species | |
Isoniazid | — | Most species/Mycobacterium; should be used in combination with other drugs (see Table 5-45); M. avium often develops resistance |
5-15 mg/kg PO q12h199,671,811 | Most species, including passerines | |
30 mg/kg PO q24h824 | Most species | |
Kanamycin (Kantrim, Fort Dodge) | — | Aminoglycoside |
10-20 mg/kg IM q12h16,199 | Most species, including passerines/enteric infections | |
13-65 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days16,96 | Most species/make fresh daily | |
Lincomycin | — | Gram-positive/anaerobic spectrum indicated for pododermatitis, chronic dermatitis, and mycoplasmosis702 |
0.25-0.5 mL intraarticular q24h × 7-10 days702 | Raptors | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q12h316 | Raptors/musculoskeletal surgical repair | |
35-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h200 | Passerines | |
35-50 mg/pigeon q24h × 7-14 days510 | Pigeons | |
50-75 mg/kg PO, IM q12h × 7-10 days64,149,702 | Psittacines, raptors/pododermatitis, osteomyelitis | |
100 mg/kg PO q24h671 | Raptors | |
100 mg/kg IM q12h64 | Psittacines | |
100-200 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
2000 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days63 | Waterfowl/Pasteurella, mycoplasmal tenosynovitis | |
Topical316 | Raptors/mixture of lincomycin (50 mg/mL) and tobramycin (10 mg/mL) was used to flush the flexor tendon sheath | |
Lincomycin/spectinomycin (LS-50 Water Soluble, Upjohn; Linco-Spectin 100 Soluble Powder, Upjohn) | — | Effective against gram-positive bacteria, Mycoplasma |
50 mg/kg PO q24h534 | Most species | |
528 mg/L drinking water for first 5 days of life309 | Turkey poults/PD; Mycoplasma airsacculitis | |
750 mg/L drinking water × 3-7 days119 | Waterfowl | |
¼-½ tsp/L drinking water × 10-14 days134 | Most species/using soluble powder 16.7 g lincomycin and 33.3 g spectinomycin per 2.55 oz powder | |
2.5-5 mg/chick IM310 once | Chicken chicks/PD; may prevent E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus infections; injectable form not available in the United States | |
Marbofloxacin (Zeniquin, Pfizer) | — | Fluoroquinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds;258 less likely to cause emesis compared to enrofloxacin;702 use with caution in juvenile birds;341 may adversely affect molt149 |
2 mg/kg PO q24h26 | Broiler chickens/PD | |
2-3 mg/kg IV, IO q24h280,281 | Raptors/PD | |
2.5-5 mg/kg PO q24h116 | Blue and gold macaws/PD | |
3-12 mg/kg PO q24h319 | Turkeys/PD | |
5 mg/kg PO q24h146 | Most species | |
5 mg/kg IM, IV183 | Ostriches/PD | |
10-15 mg/kg PO, IM q12-24h63,149,279,702 | Raptors, bustards/PD | |
Meropenem (Merrem, Abbott) | — | Broad-spectrum carbapenem antibiotic; penetrates well into most body fluids and tissues, including cerebrospinal fluid |
175 mg/kg IM q24h725 | Pigeons/PD | |
Metronidazole | — | Active against most anaerobes; see Table 5-4 |
10 mg/kg IM q24h × 2 days812 | Psittacines | |
10-30 mg/kg PO q12h × 10 days812 | Psittacines | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-7 days50,63,609 | Most species, including raptors, psittacines/anaerobes | |
50 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days692 | Amazon parrots, cockatoos/anaerobic and hemorrhagic enteritis | |
Minocycline | — | Products or foods containing Ca, Al, Mg, Fe reduce or alter absorption; outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic270 |
10 mg/kg PO q12h559 | Penguins | |
15 mg/kg PO q12h649 | Raptors/some anaerobes | |
5000 mg/kg feed16 | Parakeets/use as antibiotic impregnated millet | |
Miporamicin | 100 mg/kg feed × 5 days787 | Poultry/macrolide; under development; make preparation fresh daily |
Neomycin | — | Aminoglycoside/not absorbed from gastrointestinal tract; potentially nephrotoxic when administered IM; use is generally limited to topical formulations for skin, eyes, and ears, and, occasionally, oral treatment of enteric infections |
5-10 mg/kg IM q12h341 | Raptors/toxic if overdosed | |
10 mg/kg PO q24h200 | Passerines | |
10 mg/kg PO q8-12h96 | Most species | |
80-100 mg/L drinking water672 | Canaries | |
80-264 mg/L drinking water119 | Waterfowl | |
126 mg/L drinking water102 | Galliformes | |
70-220 mg/kg feed × 14-21 days70,119 | Waterfowl, galliformes/Clostridium, necrotizing enteritis | |
Topical q6-12h672 | Most species/superficial wounds; cover with bandage; may be absorbed systemically and may cause ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity | |
Nitrofuran | — | Systemic and topical use banned in poultry used for human consumption because of its carcinogenic properties257 |
26 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days119 | Galliformes | |
50-200 mg/kg feed × 5-7 days119 | Galliformes/Clostridium, Salmonella | |
Nitrofurazone | — | Systemic use banned in food-producing birds because of its carcinogenic properties;257 may be hepatotoxic; avoid use or reduce dosage in hot weather; do not use in finches or pigeons468,693 |
0.3 mg/L drinking water × 7 days671 | Lories, mynahs/do not put in lory nectar | |
0.6 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days518 | Most species | |
Norfloxacin (Noroxin, Merck; Vetriflox 20% Oral Solution, Lavet Ltd, Budapest) | — | Fluoroquinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds;258 administration of the total daily dose to chickens over 2-4 hr (pulse dosing) has been recommended765 |
3-5 mg/kg PO q12h810 | Ratites | |
8 mg/kg PO q24h27 | Chickens/PD | |
10 mg/kg PO q24h439 | Chickens, geese/PD | |
10 mg/kg PO q6-8h439 | Turkeys/PD | |
15 mg/kg in water over 2-4 hr716 | Turkeys/PD; once per day pulse dosing was more efficacious than continuous dosing in the water | |
20-40 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days476 | Chickens | |
100 mg/L drinking water × 5 days716 | Chickens/PD | |
175 mg/L drinking water × 5 days681 | Chickens | |
Novobiocin sodium | 15-30 mg/kg PO q24h787 | Poultry/effective against some gram-positive cocci |
220-385 mg/kg feed511 | Poultry, waterfowl | |
Oleandomycin | — | Macrolide; not available in the United States |
25 mg/kg IM q24h200 | Passerines | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h200 | Passerines | |
Orbifloxacin (Orbax, Schering-Plough) | 15-20 mg/kg PO q24h335 | Japanese quail/PD |
Ormetoprim-sulfadimethoxine (Primor, Pfizer) | — | See sulfonamides |
60 mg/kg PO q12h323 | Pigeons | |
475-951 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days323 | Pigeons | |
200-800 mg/kg feed119 | Waterfowl/colibacillosis | |
Oxytetracycline | — | IM administration may cause muscle irritation or necrosis; may be useful in treating Chlamydophila, fowl cholera;849 products or foods containing Al, Ca, Mg, Fe reduce or alter absorption; outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic270 |
2 mg/mL nebulization q4-6h208 | Parakeets/requires ultrasonic nebulizer; therapeutic concentrations of antibiotic were present in lung and trachea; not effective in treating systemic infections outside the respiratory tract | |
5 mg/kg SC, IM q12-24h72 | Chicken chicks/PD | |
5 mg/kg IM q12h841 | Ratites | |
10 mg/kg IM q3d810 | Ratites | |
15-50 mg/kg SC, IM q12-24h200 | Passerines | |
16 mg/kg IM q24h795 | Great horned owls/PD | |
23 mg/kg IV q6-8h795 | Pheasants/PD | |
25-50 mg/kg PO, IM q8h × 5-7 days63 | Raptors | |
43 mg/kg IM q24h795 | Pheasants/PD | |
48 mg/kg IM q48h363 | Owls | |
50 mg/kg IM q24h × 5-7 days702 | Psittacines | |
50 mg/kg PO q6-8h320 | Pigeons | |
50-75 mg/kg SC242 | Goffin’s cockatoos, blue and gold macaws | |
50-100 mg/kg SC, IM q2-3d200,251 | Cockatoos (PD), passerines | |
50-200 mg/kg IM q3-5d702 | Raptors | |
58 mg/kg IM q24h795 | Amazon parrots/PD | |
80 mg/kg IM q48h702 | Pigeons <400 g | |
200 mg/kg IM q24h50,63 | Most species including waterfowl/Pasteurella | |
130-400 mg/L drinking water70,320 | Pigeons | |
650-2000 mg/L drinking water × 5-14 days147 | Psittacines | |
2500 mg/L drinking water and 2500 mg/kg feed702,873 | Chickens (PD), turkeys (PD), waterfowl/simultaneous medication of feed and water required to reach therapeutic level | |
300 mg/kg soft feed × 5-14 days147 | Psittacines | |
Penicillin | 50,000 IU/kg IM119 | Waterfowl/Erysipelas, new duck disease |
8 g/40 g packet bone cement814 | PMMA beads (ratio 1:5) | |
Penicillin benzathine/procaine | — | Anecdotal reports suggest procaine penicillin should not be used in birds <1 kg BW because of possible toxic effects811 |
200 mg/kg IM q24h50 | Most species | |
Penicillin G | 6 mg/kg IV130 | Ostriches, emus/PD; rapidly eliminated; small volume of distribution |
Penicillin procaine | — | Anecdotal reports suggest procaine penicillin should not be used in birds <1 kg BW; adverse reactions (possible toxic effects) described in finches, canaries, budgerigars, cockatiels239,811 |
100 mg/kg IM q24-48h349 | Turkeys/PD | |
Piperacillin (Pipracil, Wyeth) | — | Extended-spectrum penicillin with broad-spectrum activity against many gram-positive and gram-negative aerobic and anaerobic organisms including Pseudomonas;702 not available as a veterinary product in the United States; see piperacillin/tazobactam below564 |
25 mg/kg IM811 | Ratites (chicks <6 mo of age) | |
75-100 mg/kg IM q4-6h811,812 | Amazon parrots | |
100 mg/kg IM q12h197 | Psittacines/PD | |
100 mg/kg IM q12h1 | Ostrich chicks/administer concurrent to amikacin (20 mg/kg IM q12h) | |
100 mg/kg IM, IV q8-12h577,649,702 | Pigeons, raptors, cranes | |
100 mg/kg IM q4-6h678 | Red-tailed hawks, great horned owls/PD | |
100-200 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h696,702 | Most species, including psittacines | |
200 mg/kg IM q8h666 | Budgerigars (PD), raptors | |
200 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h244,696,811 | Most species, including passerines | |
0.02 mL (4 mg) in macaw eggs; 0.01 mL (2 mg) in small eggs517 | Eggs/inject 200 mg/mL solution into air cell on days 14, 18, and 22 | |
Piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn, Tazocin, Wyeth) | 100 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h118,564 | Most species, including psittacines/PD in Amazon parrots |
Polymyxin B | — | Polypeptide antibiotic; effective against most gram-negative bacteria; potentially significant adverse effects on the renal and neurologic systems5 |
10-15 mg/kg IM q24h341 | Raptors/not absorbed if given PO | |
50,000 U/L drinking water387 | Canaries | |
50,000 U/kg soft feed387 | Canaries | |
Povidone-iodine | Topical to lesions, then wash off63 | Raptors/wound cleansing; antibacterial, antifungal activity |
Rifabutin (Mycobutin, Pharmacia) | 15-45 mg/kg PO q24h200,695,824 | Most species including passerines/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) |
Rifampicin | — | See rifampin |
Rifampin | — | Most species/Mycobacterium; use with other agents (see Table 5-45); may cause/be associated with hepatitis, CNS signs, depression, and vomiting; yellow-orange urates observed in bustards702 |
10-20 mg/kg PO q12-24h200,702,811 | Most species including passerines, psittacines/Mycobacterium | |
45 mg/kg PO q24h749,824 | Most species, including Amazon parrots, cranes | |
Silver sulfadiazine | Topical q12-24h228,672 | Most species/burns, ulcers; Amazon foot necrosis; bandage application preferred |
Spectinomycin (Spectam, Agri Labs) | 10-30 mg/kg IM q8-12h64 | Psittacines |
25-35 mg/kg IM q8-12h322 | Pigeons | |
165-275 mg/L drinking water323 | Pigeons | |
200-400 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
400 mg/kg soft feed198 | Canaries | |
Spiramycin (Provamycin, Rovamycin) | — | Macrolide; not available in the United States |
20 mg/kg IM q24h341 | Raptors | |
250 mg/kg PO q24h511 | Most species, including raptors/poorly absorbed | |
200-400 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
400 mg/kg soft feed198 | Canaries | |
Streptomycin (Streptomycin Sulfate, Roerig) | — | May be nephrotoxic; not recommended;672 consider amikacin as an alternative; Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45) |
15 mg/kg PO q24h341 | Raptors/highly neurotoxic | |
20-40 mg/kg PO q24h452 | Most species | |
25-50 mg/kg IM q24h | Chickens/PD | |
30 mg/kg IM q12h50 | Most species | |
Sulfachlorpyridazine (Vetisulid, Fort Dodge) | — | Antiprotozoal drug |
150-300 mg/L drinking water672 | Canaries | |
400 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days691 | Pigeons | |
Sulfadimethoxine (Albon, Pfizer) | — | Coccidiostat; see sulfonamides |
25-55 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-7 days392,665 | Raptors/loading dose at higher end × 1 day | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h112 | Cranes | |
190-250 mg/L drinking water511 | Pigeons/loading dose 375 mg/L drinking water | |
330-400 mg/L drinking water on day 1 followed by 200-265 mg/L × 4 days323 | Pigeons | |
Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-501, Solvay Animal Health; Sul-Q-Nox, Alfarma) | — | See sulfonamides |
250-500 mg/kg feed119 | Waterfowl/avian cholera, new duck disease | |
Sulfonamides | — | Broad-spectrum antimicrobial; prohibited in food-producing birds;849 contraindicated with dehydration, liver disease, or bone marrow suppression; gastrointestinal upset, regurgitation are common especially in macaws; resistance by Pseudomonas is common;696 use for longer than 2 wk may require vitamin supplementation |
Tetracycline | — | Products or foods containing Al, Ca, Mg, Fe reduce or alter absorption; outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic270 |
50 mg/kg PO q8h200,672 | Most species, including passerines | |
200-250 mg/kg PO q12-24h134,671 | Most species/gavage | |
40-200 mg/L drinking water66,119,134 | Most species, including game birds | |
100 mg/L drinking water645 | Rheas | |
200 mg/L drinking water692 | Pigeons | |
666 mg/L drinking water702 | Pigeons | |
100-600 mg/kg feed70,119 | Game birds | |
Tiamulin (Denagard; Novartis) | — | Bacteriostatic antibiotic; effective against Mycoplasma, some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and spirochetes614 |
12.5 mg/kg PO × 3 days94 | Poultry/intestinal spirochetosis | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q24h177 | Most species | |
30 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days629 | Poultry adults | |
60 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days629 | Poultry chicks | |
225-250 mg/L drinking water × 3-7 days70,702 | Poultry, pigeons | |
1000 mg/L water629 | Poultry eggs/dip | |
300-400 mg/kg feed × 7 days70,629 | Game birds | |
Tiamulin/chlortetracycline (Tetramutin, Novartis) | 1-1.5 mg/kg feed × 7 days772 | Chickens/Mycoplasma; Brachyspira-related diseases; may be used with salinomycin at low doses of 60 mg/kg without signs of incompatibility371 |
Ticarcillin (Ticar, SmithKline Beecham) | — | Extended-spectrum penicillin; very poor absorption if injectable given PO |
75-100 mg/kg IM q4-6h696 | Amazon parrots | |
150-200 mg/kg IV q2-4h200 | Passerines, soft bills | |
200 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h96,693 | Most species, including pigeons, raptors/Pseudomonas242 | |
200 mg/kg IM q2-4h724 | Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD | |
Ticarcillin/clavulanate (Timentin, SmithKline Beecham) | 100 mg/kg IM, IV146 | Most species/frequency not reported |
200 mg/kg IM, IV q12h692 | Most species | |
Tilmicosin (Micotil 300 Injection, Provitil-powder and Pulmotil AC-liquid, Elanco) | — | Macrolide; handle with caution; potentially fatal to humans614 |
30 mg/kg PO q24h9 | Poultry/PD | |
100-500 mg/L drinking water × 5 days395,416 | Poultry chicks/Mycoplasma | |
Tobramycin | — | Aminoglycoside; used only for severe infections caused by resistant Pseudomonas infections;702 neurotoxicity (irreversible auditory and vestibular ototoxicity) or nephrotoxicity may develop5 |
0.25-0.5 mL intraarticular flush q24h × 7-10 days63 | Raptors/septic arthritis | |
2.5 mg/kg IM q8h147 | Psittacines | |
2.5-5 mg/kg IM, IV q12h696,702 | Psittacines, passerines, raptors, pheasants, cranes | |
5 mg/kg IM q12h50 | Most species | |
10 mg/kg IM q12h × 5-7 days149,534 | Raptors | |
Topical316 | A mixture of lincomycin (50 mg/mL) and tobramycin (10 mg/mL) was used to flush the flexor tendon sheath | |
Trimethoprim | — | Bacteriostatic activity against some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria |
10-20 mg/kg PO q8h195,199,511 | Psittacines, passerines, pigeons (PD) | |
Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine (Tribrissen, Schering-Plough; Septra, Monarch) | — | See sulfonamides |
8 mg/kg SC, IM q12h577 | Cranes | |
12-60 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-7 days63 | Raptors/useful for sensitive infections in neonates | |
16-24 mg/kg PO q8-12h577 | Cranes | |
20 mg/kg SC, IM q12h147 | Psittacines | |
30 mg/kg PO q8h343 | Psittacines; combine with pyrimethamine for treatment of sarcocystosis | |
30 mg/kg PO, IM, IV q12h315 | Ostriches/PD | |
60 mg/kg PO q12h323 | Pigeons | |
107 mg/L drinking water70 | Galliformes | |
475-950 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days323 | Pigeons | |
Trimethoprim/sulfatroxazole | — | See sulfonamides |
10-50 mg/kg PO q12h200 | Passerines | |
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim, Roche; Septra, Burroughs Wellcome) | — | See sulfonamides |
8 mg/kg IM q12h702 | Psittacines | |
10-50 mg/kg PO q24h200 | Passerines | |
20 mg/kg PO q8-12h702 | Psittacines | |
21 mg/kg PO q12h1 | Ostriches | |
40-50 mg/kg PO q12h244 | Psittacines | |
48 mg/kg PO, IM q12h397 | Raptors | |
60 mg/kg PO q24h195 | Pigeons/PD | |
60-72 mg/kg PO q12h111 | Cranes | |
75 mg/kg IM q12h50 | Most species/reduce dose if regurgitation occurs242 | |
100 mg/kg PO q12h50 | Most species, including psittacines | |
144 mg/kg PO q8-12h696 | Most species | |
360-400 mg/L drinking water × 10-14 days691 | Most species, including pigeons | |
400 mg/kg feed633 | Geese | |
Tylosin (Tylan, Elanco) | — | Macrolide; effective against gram-positive bacteria, Mycoplasma, Chlamydophila, Pasteurella; very irritating to muscles when administered IM; poor absorption if injectable given PO322 |
3-5 mg/kg IM, IV q12h810 | Ratites | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q8h810 | Ratites | |
6.6-11 mg/kg SCc | Galliformes | |
10-40 mg/kg IM q6-8h200,672 | Poultry, passerines | |
15 mg/kg IM q8h469 | Cranes/PD | |
15-30 mg/kg IM q12h × 3 day63,149 | Raptors | |
17 mg/kg IM q24h × 7 days532 | Emus/Mycoplasma | |
20-30 mg/kg IM q8h × 3-7 days63 | Waterfowl/Mycoplasma | |
20-40 mg/kg IM q8h702 | Psittacines | |
25 mg/kg IM q8h469 | Emus/PD | |
25 mg/kg IM q6h469 | Pigeons, quail/PD | |
30 mg/kg IM q12h63 | Most species/Mycoplasma | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h70,200 | Passerines, pigeons | |
50 mg/L drinking water692 | Most species | |
250-400 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
300 mg/L drinking water × 6 wk568 | House finches/Mycoplasma | |
500 mg/L drinking water × 3-28 days70,395,702,788 | Pigeons, galliformes, waterfowl, emus/Mycoplasma | |
800 mg/L drinking water323 | Pigeons | |
1000 mg/L drinking water × 21 days512 | House finches/Mycoplasma; give in conjunction with ophthalmic ciprofloxacin | |
2000 mg/L drinking water321,322 | Pigeons, poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus | |
200 mg/kg feed70 | Galliformes | |
100 mg/10 mL saline nasal flush44 × 10 days702 | Waterfowl/Mycoplasma | |
Virginiamycin (Stafac, Pfizer) | 22 mg/kg feed787 | Poultry |
a Most drug doses used in birds should be considered experimental. Patients should be monitored for adverse effects and treatment failure.242
b Wojick K. Personal communication. 2011.
c Ley D. Personal communication. 1997.
Agent | Dosage | Species/Comments |
---|---|---|
Acetic acid (vinegar) | 16 mL/L drinking water387 | Most species/gastrointestinal yeast infections |
Amphotericin B | — | Fungicidal; lipid-based amphotericin B products are now available that have less toxicity than conventional desoxycholate form; Macrorhabdus ornithogaster (avian gastric yeast); preferred IV agent for aspergillosis; intratracheal administration for syringeal aspergilloma may cause tracheitis; potentially nephrotoxic; resistance may develop608 |
1.5 mg/kg IV q8h × 3-7 days52,238,651 | Most species | |
1 mg/kg intratracheal q8-12h, dilute to 1 mL with sterile water651,671,672 | Psittacines, raptors/aspergillosis | |
1 mg/kg intratracheal q12h × 12 days, then q48h × 5 wk63 | Raptors/syringeal aspergilloma | |
100-109 mg/kg PO by gavage q12h × 10-30 days511,535,609,614 | Budgerigars/avian gastric yeast (“megabacteria”); compound in simple syrup; resistance reported in budgerigars in Australia609 | |
0.05 mg/mL sterile water52 | Most species/nasal flush | |
0.2 mL PO q12h × 10 days147 | Budgerigars/avian gastric yeast; use IV formulation (5 mg/mL) | |
0.25-1 mL PO q24h × 4-5 days63 | Raptor neonates/candidiasis; not absorbed from alimentary tract | |
1000 mg/L drinking water × 10 days231 | Budgerigars/avian gastric yeast | |
Topical147 | Apply 10% solution to oropharynx | |
1.35 mg/kg topical q24h of a liposomally encapsulated formulation in a sterile, water-soluble lubricating gel74 | Heron | |
7 mg/mL saline q12h814 | Most species/nebulization × 15 min | |
Amphotericin B (3% cream) | Topical to affected area q12h387,672 | Most species/mycoses |
Amphotericin B (A)/proteolytic nasal flush (P) | Nasal flush (A) 1 mg/kg + (P) 0.2-0.4 mL diluted in 20 mL saline11 q24h | Uses a commercial neomycin-chymotrypsin-trypsin-hydrocortisone ointment (Kymar, Schering-Plough); 10 mL per naris (flushed vigorously in small amounts) |
Caprylic acid (Kaprycidin A, Ecological Formulas) | — | Naturally occurring fatty acid with antifungal properties |
271 mg/kg PO813 | Most species/adjunctive treatment with imidazoles; seldom used | |
Clotrimazole | — | Broad-spectrum antifungal agent; inhibits the growth of pathogenic yeasts such as Candida albicans; used commonly as adjunctive therapy for aspergillosis; administer via air sac, intratracheally, nebulization, or topically |
2 mg/kg intratracheal q24h × 5 days692 | Psittacines/syringeal aspergilloma; apply with catheter directly into syrinx during anesthesia | |
Inject 10 mg/kg into air sacs692 | Psittacines/dilute in propylene glycol to 2.5 mg/mL; divide total dose between the 4 most accessible air sacs; toxic and may result in death in African grey parrots and other birds if injected into the viscera or IM629 | |
10 mg/mL saline flush238,609 | Most species/effective against Aspergillus at sites that can be flushed; nasal flush using 1% solution | |
1% solution814 | Nebulization × 30-60 min | |
Enilconazole emulsion | — | Imidazole antifungal agent with activity against Penicillium and dermatophytes16 |
6 mg/kg PO q12h16 | Eclectus parrots/glossal candidiasis; an elevation of AST was seen after 7 days of treatment | |
1 mg (0.5 mL)/kg intratracheal of a 1:10 dilution q24h × 7-14 days702 | Falcons/aspergillosis | |
200 mg/L drinking water16 | Canaries/cutaneous dermatophytosis | |
Topical 1:10 dilution q12h × 21-28 days63 | Raptors/cutaneous aspergillosis, candidiasis | |
Topical or intratracheal 1:10-1:100 dilution64 | Psittacines/aspergillosis, candidiasis | |
3 topical soakings q3d651 | Raptors, ostriches/dermatophytosis | |
0.1 mL/kg in 5 mL sterile water, nebulize × 30 min, 5 days on, 2 off, up to 3 mo338 | Raptors/aspergillosis | |
Fluconazole (Diflucan, Pfizer) | — | Fungistatic; penetrates well into brain, cerebrospinal fluid, and eyes;16 only indicated if topical treatment (i.e., nystatin) is not feasible;16water-soluble; safest therapeutic index of the azoles; Candida, avian gastric yeast; may be ineffective against aspergillosis;651 death observed in budgerigars at 10 mg/kg PO q12h (this dose was also ineffective against avian gastric yeast)609 |
2-5 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days63,583 | Most species, including raptors/gastrointestinal, systemic candidiasis; CNS, ocular mycoses | |
4-6 mg/kg PO q12h240 | Juvenile psittacines/candidiasis | |
5 mg/kg PO q24h648 | Cockatiels/candidiasis | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q24h49 | Gouldian finches/candidiasis | |
5-15 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-60 days or longer692 | Most species/aspergillosis, mycelial candidiasis; use lower dose for candidiasis | |
8 mg/kg PO q24h × 30 days812 | Psittacines/cryptococcosis | |
10 mg/kg PO q48h648 | Cockatiels/candidiasis | |
10-20 mg/kg PO × 30 days387 | Red-tailed hawks, gyrfalcons/aspergillosis | |
15 mg/kg PO q12h × ≥ 28 days694 | Pigeons/aspergillosis | |
15 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days following cessation of clinical signs11 | Psittacines/chronic nasal aspergillosis | |
20 mg/kg PO q48h240 | Psittacines/PD; mucosal, systemic yeast infections; 2-3 treatments for resistant candidiasis | |
100 mg/kg PO q24h608 | Chickens/avian gastric yeast | |
100 mg/kg soft food49 | Gouldian finches/candidiasis | |
25 mg/L nectar331 | Hummingbirds/aspergillosis | |
50 mg/L drinking water × 14-60 days692 | Most species/systemic mycoses; candidiasis | |
100 mg/L drinking water × 8 days648 | Cockatiels/candidiasis | |
150 mg/L drinking water49 | Gouldian finches/candidiasis | |
Flucytosine (Ancobon, Roche) | — | Fungistatic agent; penetrates well into CNS; used prophylactically in raptors (especially falcons) and waterfowl to prevent aspergillosis;a may be administered as adjunctive treatment; about 50% of Aspergillus strains are resistant;680 toxicity is low, however adverse effects may include gastrointestinal effects, hepatotoxicity, bone marrow depression80,680 |
20-30 mg/kg PO q6h × 20-90 days363 | Raptors/aspergillosis | |
20-75 mg/kg PO q12h × 21 days702 | Psittacines/generalized yeast or fungal infections | |
50 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-28 days147,583 | Psittacines, passerines, raptors | |
50-75 mg/kg PO q8h651 | Raptors/aspergillosis prophylaxis | |
60 mg/kg PO q12h (birds >500 g)11 | Most species, including galliformes, swans/syringeal aspergilloma | |
75 mg/kg q12h × 5-7 days, then q24h × 14 days651 | Raptors/prophylaxis for prevention of aspergillosis;a recommended to treat for 1 wk prior to and 2 wk after move; used routinely for domestically raised gyrfalcons and gyrfalcon hybrids from age 45 days | |
75-120 mg/kg PO q6h583 | Most species | |
80-100 mg/kg PO q12h810 | Ratites | |
100-250 mg/kg PO q12h402 | Psittacine neonates | |
120 mg/kg PO q6h397 | Raptors/aspergillosis | |
150 mg/kg PO q12h (birds <500 g)11 | Most species, including psittacines, galliformes, swans/syringeal aspergilloma | |
250 mg/kg PO q12h397 | Raptors/candidiasis | |
250 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-17 days780 | Finches/endoventricular mycoses; can use with chlorhexidine in drinking water | |
50-250 mg/kg feed671,672 | Psittacines, mynah birds | |
Griseofulvin | 10 mg/kg PO q12h × 21 days63,702 | Pigeons/dermatophytosis; gavage |
30-50 mg/kg in drinking water q24h511,810 | Ostriches/mycotic dermatitis | |
Iodine, 1% solution | Topical651 | Oral or cutaneous candidiasis |
Itraconazole (Sporanox, Janssen) | — | Most species/systemic mycoses, superficial candidiasis, dermatophytosis; fungistatic; maximal oral bioavailability when taken with a full meal;5 commercially available suspension is recommended as a first choice; don’t use compounded formulations because bulk drug not bioavailable or stable;93,245 study using SC controlled release gel formulation in ducks showed unacceptable tissue and plasma levels of the drug799 |
2.5-5 mg/kg PO q24h585,609 | African grey parrots/anorexia, depression, and toxicity reported at higher doses in this species241 | |
5 mg/kg PO q24h11 | Galliformes, swans, ratites/aspergillosis | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q24h585 | Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD; aspergillosis; 10 mg/kg is required to achieve therapeutic concentrations in poorly perfused tissues | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 10-14 days, then q48h363 | Raptors/aspergillosis prophylaxisa | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q12-24h397 | Raptors | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days, followed by q24h for a total of 14 days651 | Raptors/Class I aspergillosis (mild, vague signs with inconclusive diagnostics or without histologic confirmation) | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days, followed by q24h × 60-90 days651 | Raptors/Class II-IV aspergillosis | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q12h409,671 | Passerines (towhees), waterfowl, penguins/aspergillosis prophylaxis in passerines; aspergillosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis in others | |
6 mg/kg PO q12h483 | Pigeons/PD; dosage will achieve fungicidal plasma concentrations | |
6-8 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-7 days then q24h × 14 days651 | Raptors/prevention of aspergillosis;a recommended to treat for 1 wk prior and 2 wk after move, and routinely for domestically raised gyrfalcons and gyrfalcon hybrids from age 45 days | |
6-10 mg/kg PO384 | Ratites/preferred azole | |
10 mg/kg PO q24h394,583 | Red-tailed hawks, gentoo penguins/PD; steady state plasma concentrations achieved within 2 wk16 | |
10 mg/kg PO q24h × 14-90 days with food583,584,609 | Psittacines/use in combination with non-azoles | |
10 mg/kg PO q12-24h584 | Pigeons | |
10 mg/kg PO q12h × 21-60 days147,780 | Finches/endoventricular mycoses; can use with chlorhexidine in drinking water | |
15 mg/kg PO q12h up to 4-6 wk363 | Raptors/aspergillosis | |
20 mg/kg PO q24h93 | Penguins/PD | |
26 mg/kg PO q12h | Pigeons/PD; fungicidal levels achieved in respiratory tissue; further toxicologic studies are required | |
200 mg/kg feed up to 100 days663 | Gouldian finches/PD; dermatomycoses; beads from capsules were mixed with small amount of oil and seed | |
Ketoconazole (Nizoral, Janssen) | — | Most species/systemic mycoses (e.g., aspergillosis), candidiasis; fungistatic; less toxic than amphotericin B; more toxic than itraconazole; may be associated with potentially fatal hepatotoxicity;5 >20 mg/kg may cause regurgitation (if regurgitation, discontinue for 1-2 days, then restart) |
3 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days70 | Pigeons | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q24h810 | Ratites | |
8 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days70 | Ostriches | |
10-20 mg/kg PO q24h70 | Ostriches | |
10-30 mg/kg PO q12h × 30-60 days692 | Most species | |
12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 30 days672 | Swans/candidiasis | |
15 mg/kg PO q12h397 | Raptors/candidiasis | |
20 mg/kg PO q24h × 14 days147 | Psittacines, passerines, raptors | |
20 mg/kg PO q12h402 | Psittacine neonates | |
20 mg/kg PO q8h × 7-14 days609 | Psittacines/refractory candidiasis | |
20-30 mg/kg PO q8h238 | Cockatoos | |
20-40 mg/kg PO q12h × 15-60 days693 | Pigeons | |
25 mg/kg PO q12h × 14 days702 | Ratites, raptors/aspergillosis | |
30 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-14 days425 | Amazon parrots/PD | |
30 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-30 days425,692 | Pigeons (PD), raptors/prophylactic in raptors for aspergillosis | |
50 mg/kg/day PO150 | Toucans | |
60 mg/kg PO q12h838 | Raptors/PD (common buzzard); aspergillosis | |
200 mg/L drinking water, nectar, or soft feed × 7-14 days49,198,331 | Canaries, hummingbirds, gouldian finches/dissolve crushed tablet in ½-1 tsp vinegar | |
Miconazole | — | Fungistatic; inhibits the growth of Candida albicans, Malassezia, and dermatophytes; injectable miconazole is not available in the United States |
5 mg/kg intratracheal q12h × 5 days842 | Psittacines/10 mg/mL solution diluted with saline; syringeal mycoses; use with flucytosine; clotrimazole may be an alternative | |
10 mg/kg IM q24h × 6-12 days702 | Raptors/generalized aspergillosis | |
20 mg/kg IV q8h702 | Psittacines/candidiasis, cryptococcosis | |
Topical to affected areas q12h651,779 | Cutaneous fungal infections; used in conjunction with oral itraconazole; dermatophytosis | |
Nystatin | — | Drug of choice for treatment of candidiasis; not systemically absorbed across intact gastrointestinal tract;5,16 oral lesions must be treated by direct contact with medication;16 when treating neonates, administer separately from formula to maximize concentration and contact time16 |
5000 U/bird PO q12h × 10 days231,232 | Goldfinches/avian gastric yeast; ineffective in budgerigars | |
20,000-100,000 U/bird PO q24h × 7 days70,702 | Pigeons/candidiasis | |
100,000 U/kg PO q12h322,397 | Pigeons, raptors | |
250,000-430,000 U/kg PO q12h147 | Hummingbirds | |
250,000-500,000 U/kg PO q12h810 | Ratites | |
300,000 U/kg PO q12h × 7-14 days63,238 | Most species, including waterfowl | |
300,000-600,000 U/kg PO q8-12h × 7-14 days147 | Psittacines | |
500,000 U/kg PO q8h × 5 days159 | Toucanette (safron)/candidiasis | |
Topical q6h368 | Hummingbirds/candidiasis; direct application using a cotton swab | |
25,000 U/L nectar368 | Hummingbirds | |
100,000 U/L drinking water49,198 | Canaries, finches | |
200,000 U/kg soft feed49,63 | Canaries, finches | |
Parconazole (Parcomyc, Janssen-Cilag) | 30-60 mg/kg feed680 | Guinea fowl/candidiasis; prophylaxis; not available in the United States |
Pimaricin (Natamycin, Alcon) | 1 drop in affected eye topically q8h768 | Lovebirds/macrolide antifungal; keratomycosis |
Povidone iodine | Topical to lesions, then rinse63 | Raptors/wound cleansing; antibacterial, antifungal activity |
Silver sulfadiazine | Topical to affected areas q12-24h228,672 | Most species/bandage application preferred |
STA solution (salicyclic acid 3 g, tannic acid 3 g, ethyl alcohol to 100 mL) | Topical702 | Fungal dermatitis |
Terbinafine | — | Fungicidal; questionable therapeutic potential for the treatment of aspergillosis in avian species; higher dose or use in combination with itraconazole may be more effective245 |
10-15 mg/kg PO q12-24h170 | Most species | |
15 mg/kg PO q24h53 | Penguins/PD | |
15-30 mg/kg PO q12h245 | Most species | |
22 mg/kg PO q24h54 | Raptors/PD | |
1 mg/mL solution via nebulization637 | Most species | |
Voriconazole (Vfend, Pfizer) | — | Most active drug against aspergillosis, although some strains resistant;55 difficult to extrapolate drug doses between species; safety unproven in birds; PO and IV solutions available; may need to adjust dose for long term treatment to maintain therapeutic concentrations;245 compounded suspensions stable up to 30 days at room temperature567 |
10 mg/kg PO, IV q12h95 | Chickens/PD | |
10 mg/kg PO q12h or 20 mg/kg q24h55–57 | Pigeons/PD | |
12-18 mg/kg PO q12h254 | African grey parrots/PD | |
12.5 mg/kg PO q12h188,720 | Raptors | |
18 mg/kg PO q8h306 | Amazons/PD | |
20 mg/kg PO q24h × 21 days595 | Many species | |
40 mg/kg PO q24h798 | Quail/PD |
a Prophylatic use of antifungal agents may be indicated in newly captured or admitted birds of susceptible species, and in birds undergoing change of management or transfer of enclosure.651
Agent | Dosage | Species/Comments |
---|---|---|
Acemannan (Carravet, Carrington Laboratories) | 1 mg/kg SC q7d857 | Chemotherapeutic adjunct therapy |
2 mg/kg intralesional q7d × 4 treatments857 | Use before surgical debulking of fibrosarcomas | |
Acyclovir (Zovirax, Burroughs Wellcome) | — | Antiviral agent; active against herpesviruses and cytomegalovirus; IM injection of the water-soluble sodium salt (IV formulation) may cause severe muscle necrosis; phlebitis and neurologic signs may occur with IV administration; most effective when administered before clinical signs begin; birds should be treated for a minimum of 7 days; the reconstituted solution is unstable and should be divided into aliquots and frozen16,702,812 |
10 mg/kg IM q24h × 5-14 days starting 3 days postexposure156 | Chickens/Marek’s disease | |
20-40 mg/kg IM q12h689 | Psittacines/psittacine herpesvirus | |
29 mg/bird PO q8h × 7 days63 | Pigeons/herpesvirus | |
80 mg/kg PO q8h × 7 days569 | Quaker parakeets/PD; psittacine herpesvirus prophylaxis or treatment | |
120 mg/kg PO q12h697 | Tragopans/PD | |
330 mg/kg PO q12h × 4-7 days401 | Psittacine neonates/psittacine herpesvirus | |
330 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-14 days363 | Raptors/falcon and owl herpesvirus; may cause vomiting | |
≤400 mg/kg feed156 | Quaker parakeets/herpesvirus | |
1000 mg/L drinking water156,670 | Quaker parakeets/herpesvirus; gavage | |
Amantadine (Symmetrel, Endo Labs) | — | Antiviral agent; inhibits replication of influenza A viruses156 |
1 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 wk296 | African grey parrots/no effect on avian bornavirus infection | |
10 mg/kg PO × 3 days pre- and 18 days post-exposure156 | Turkeys/influenza viruses; must be administered before and during virus exposure | |
25 mg/kg PO × 10 days following infection156 | Chickens | |
100 mg/L drinking water156 | Chickens/can use simultaneously with killed influenza vaccine | |
Echinacea (Echinacea solution, Biobotania) | 0.5 mL/kg per L drinking water q24h × 5 days702 | Psittacines/herbal immunostimulant |
1 mL/L drinking water671 | Psittacines; use alcohol-free formulation | |
Famciclovir (Famvir, Novartis) | 25 mg/kg PO q12h807 | Ducklings/PD; antiviral agent; duck hepatitis; toxic effects were not reported |
Imiquimod cream (Aldara, 3M) | Applied topically 3×/wk several hr before the morning feeding451 | Psittacines/cloacal papillomatosis; thought to boost host cell-mediated immunity; masses decreased in size in one report, but not in another;447 complete remission did not occur in either |
ImmunoRegulin (Propionibacterium Acnes, Neogen) | 0.13 mg/kg (up to 0.08 mg [0.2 mL] max) SC, IM days 1,3,7,14,28,42, then q30d45 | Psittacines/immune therapy for chronic feather pickers; induces macrophage and lymphokine production; enhances cell-mediated immunity; increases natural killer cell activity; do not use with corticosteroids |
Interferon α2a | — | Glycoprotein with immunomodulating and antiproliferative capabilities as well as antiviral activity |
30 U q24h × 5 days, 30 U 2×/wk × 2 wk, then 30 U q7d × 2 wk299 | Most species/proventricular dilatation disease; may be associated with temporary clinical improvement | |
60-240 U/kg SC, IM q12h733 | Most species/stock solution: mix 1 mL (3,000,000 U/mL) with 100 mL sterile water (30,000 U/mL); can freeze as 2 mL vials up to 1 yr; mix 2 mL of stock into 1 L LRS (=60 U/mL); refrigerate up to 3 mo | |
1500 U/kg PO q24h16 | Psittacines | |
1,000,000 U IM q48h to q7d × 3 treatments762 | African grey parrots/circovirus; omega alpha-2 interferon | |
1000 U/L drinking water × 14-28 days691 | Pigeons/circovirus | |
Levamisole | — | Anthelmintic with immunostimulation properties; low therapeutic index (toxic reactions and deaths reported) |
1.25-2.5 mg/kg PO, SC670 | Poultry | |
2 mg/kg SC, IM q14d × 3 treatments87,672 | Most species, including macaws | |
11 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 wk133 | Most species | |
Penciclovir (Denavir, Novartis) | 10 mg/kg IP q24h × 12-24 wk465 | Ducks/PD; antiviral agent active against herpesviruses; duck hepatitis B virus; viral levels were significantly reduced; no toxic effects observed; dissolve in 2 mL of 1% DMSO |
Rimantadine (Flumadine, Forest) | 100 mg/L drinking water156 | Chickens/influenza viruses; must be used before and during exposure |
Silymarin (milk thistle) | 100-150 mg/kg PO divided q8-12h11 | Most species/hepatic antioxidant; used in patients with liver disease and as ancillary to chemotherapy; use an alcohol-free liquid formulation |
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | 20-50 mg/kg IM q1-7d397,672 | Most species, including raptors/antioxidant; immunostimulant; nutritional support; acidify the gut |
Agent | Dosage | Species/Comments |
---|---|---|
Albendazole (11.36%) (Valbazen, Pfizer) | — | Broad-spectrum anthelmintic; may be toxic in keas, some Columbiformes at 50-100 mg/kg361,759 |
5.2 mg/kg PO q12h × 3 days, repeat in 14 days810 | Ratites/flagellates, cestodes | |
10 mg/kg PO once158 | Poultry/PK | |
15-20 mg/kg PO once150 | Toucans | |
25 mg/kg PO q24h × 90 days, then repeat × 120 days when signs returned612 | Cockatoos/Encephalitozoon hellem keratoconjunctivitis | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-4 days759 | Doves, rock partridges/Capillaria | |
47 mg/kg PO once, then repeat in 4 wk743 | Chickens/lower ascarid, Heterakis fecal counts than nontreated | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days108 | Amazon parrots/microsporidian keratoconjunctivitis | |
113-116 mg/23 kg q12h × 3 days, repeat in 14 wk43 | Ratites/protozoal infections | |
Amitraz (Mitaban, Upjohn) | — | Highly effective against Dermanyssus gallinae504 |
Spray 2.5 L/bird with 0.025% solution (dilute 1 part amitraz [12.5%] with 500 parts water), repeat in 10 days102 | Ostriches/lice | |
Amprolium (Corid, TEVA; Amprol Plus MSD, AgVet) | — | Pyridimine derivative coccidiostat; although rarely encountered, efficacy can be reduced by high doses of thiamine;757 some coccidial organisms of mynahs, toucans have shown resistance43 |
2.2 mg/kg PO115 | Sandhill cranes/ineffective in preventing experimentally induced disseminated visceral coccidiosis | |
13-26 mg/kg PO308 | Chickens/PK,PD; bioavailability almost 4 times greater in fasted birds | |
25 mg/kg/day PO43 | Pigeons | |
30 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days43,341 | Raptors | |
5-100 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days43 | Most species/flock treatment | |
50-100 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days173,506 | Most species, including passerines, parakeets | |
60 mg/L drinking water111 | Cranes | |
200 mg/L drinking water323,324 | Pigeons/flock treatment | |
250 mg/L drinking water × 7 days843 | Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis; use in combination with pyrimethamine and primaquine | |
575 mg/L drinking water119 | Poultry/using a 9.6% solution | |
¼ tsp/L drinking water × 3-5 days320,321 | Pigeons, poultry/20% soluble powder | |
115-235 mg/kg feed113,757 | Poultry, pheasants, cranes/coccidia; Sarcocystis; lower dose is prophylactic; higher dose is therapeutic | |
125 mg/kg feed647 | Turkeys/31/33 Eimeria isolates resistant | |
Cambendazole (Equiben, MSD, AgVet) | 60-100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-7 days506 | Most species |
75 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days43,325 | Pigeons | |
Carbaryl 5% (Sevin Dust, Bayer) | Topical; light dusting of plumage or nest box litter43 | Most species/ants, ectoparasites; remove treated litter after 24 hr |
1-2 tsp to nesting material43 | Most species/ectoparasite control | |
Carnidazole (Spartrix, Wildlife Pharma-ceuticals) | — | Treatment for Trichomonas, Hexamita, Histomonas43 |
5 mg/bird PO693 | Doves (adults), pigeons (squabs) | |
10 mg/bird PO785 | Pink pigeons (adults)/Trichomonas; squabs ≤18 days old administer 5 mg | |
12.5-25 mg/kg PO once43,126 | Pigeons/Trichomonas, use lower dose with juvenile birds; combine with dimetridazole to treat flock | |
20 mg/kg PO once324 | Pigeons | |
20 mg/kg q24h PO × 2 days341,397 | Raptors | |
20-25 mg/kg PO once43 | Raptors/single dose not always effective in falcons, bustards with advanced infections | |
20-30 mg/kg PO q24h × 1-2 days43,126 | Most species, including pigeons, psittacines | |
20-30 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days28 | House finches/reliably cleared Trichomonas gallinae if caught prior to clinical signs | |
30 mg/kg PO once261 | Raptors/Trichomonas | |
30 mg/kg PO q12h × 3 days392 | Raptors | |
30 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days660 | Raptors/Trichomonas | |
30-50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days387,672 | Cockatiels/Giardia | |
33 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 and 28 days49 | Society finches, Gouldian finches/flagellates; 0.5 mg/adult (based on 15 g); 0.25 mg/nestling (based on 7.5 g) | |
50 mg/kg PO once363 | Raptors | |
120 mg/kg PO as single dose or divided over 2-5 days817 | American kestrels, screech owls/Trichomonas infections resistant to treatment with lower doses | |
Chloroquine phosphate | — | Generally used with primaquine for Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon; overdose can result in death43 |
5 mg/kg PO q24h or in feed672,757 | Game birds, penguins/in penguins, precede treatment with primaquine by 6 hr | |
10 mg/kg PO q7d661 | Most species/preventative treatment for Plasmodium once bird is stable; use with primaquine (1 mg/kg q7d) | |
10 mg/kg PO, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 18, and 24 hr43 | Penguins | |
10 mg/kg PO, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 24, and 48 hr113 | Raptors/use with 0.3 mg/kg primaquine (at 24 hr following the initial chloroquine dose) q24h × 7 days | |
20 mg/kg PO or IV, then 10 mg/kg at 6, 18, and 24 hr; repeat q7d × 3-5 treatments671 | Raptors/Plasmodium; IV is recommended for initial dose in acute cases; use with 1 mg/kg primaquine q24h × 2 days | |
25 mg/kg PO, then 15 mg/kg PO at 12, 24, and 48 hr665,747 | Most species, including raptors/use with 0.75-1.3 mg/kg primaquine at 0 hr | |
60 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days551 | Raptors/Haemoproteus; use in conjunction with mefloquine and primaquine | |
2000 mg/L drinking water q24h × 14 days126,757 | Passerines, game birds/juice covers bitter taste of drug757 | |
Clazuril (Appertex, Janssen) | — | Benzene-acetonitrile anticoccidial |
2.5 mg/bird PO once; can repeat monthly830 | Pigeons/oocyst shedding commences 20 days post-treatment | |
3 mg/kg PO once, or × 5 days288 | Chickens/PK; drug detected in eggs after multiple dosing | |
5 mg/kg PO once126 | Pigeons | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days341 | Raptors | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days506 | Poultry, pigeons | |
5-10 mg/kg PO q72h × 3 treatments43,149 | Waterfowl, raptors | |
6.25 mg/kg PO once43 | Pigeons | |
7 mg/kg PO × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days43,64 | Psittacines | |
30 mg/kg PO once126 | Raptors | |
1.1 or 5.5 mg/kg feed115 | Sandhill cranes/ineffective in preventing experimentally induced disseminated visceral coccidiosis | |
Clopidol (25%) (Coyden-25, Alpharma) | 125 mg/kg feed647 | Turkeys/16/33 Eimeria isolates showed partial to complete resistance |
125-250 mg/kg feed757 | Game birds/coccidiosis, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium | |
Clorsulon (Curatrem, Merial) | — | Benzenesulfonamide anthelmintic and flukicide |
20 mg/kg PO q14d × 3 treatments43,141,671 | Psitacines, waterfowl, raptors/trematodes, cestodes | |
20 mg/kg PO 3×/wk × 14 days63 | Waterfowl, raptors/trematodes, cestodes | |
Crotamiton (Eurax, Westwood-Squibb) | Topical to affected areas43 | Most species/mites (i.e., Knemidokoptes); use in combination with ivermectin |
Cypermethrin (5%) (Max Con, Y-Tex) | 60-120 mg/chicken topically over dorsal neck21 | Chickens/effective against Triatoma infestans |
Spray or dip with 1:100 dilution43 | Pigeons, ostriches/lice, mites | |
Decoquinate (Deccox, Alpharma) | 20-40 mg/kg feed304,787 | Chickens/Eimeria; very effective in isolates studied |
Deltamethrin (Spot On, Schering-Plough) | 50 mg/L topical spray511 | Ostriches/lice; spray until runoff |
Dichlorophene (Tapeworm tablets, Happy Jack) | 100 mg PO q10d × 2 treatments, repeat in 10 days prn417 | Pigeons/cestodes; administer after a 12-hr fast |
Diclazuril (Clinicox 0.5%, Huvepharma AD; DiClosol 1%, Pharmaswede) | — | Benzene-acetonitrile anticoccidial; some Eimeria resistance in poultry documented recently;4,647 rotation suggested for long-term prevention |
10 mg/kg PO q12h on days 0,1,2,4,6,8,10514 | Hawaiian crows/Toxoplasma | |
5 mg/L drinking water × 6 days33 | Chickens/reduced oocyst viability and virulence | |
5-10 mg/L drinking water × 2 days213 | Chickens/effective in preventing disease and reducing total oocysts, lesions and mortality in infected birds with mixed Eimeria infections | |
0.5-1 mg/kg feed123,213 | Chickens, turkeys/coccidia | |
1 mg/kg feed647 | Turkeys/21/33 Eimeria isolates partially or completely resistant | |
Dimetridazole (Emtryl 40% powder, Rhone Merieux) | — | Trichomonas, Giardia, Hexamita, Spironucleus, Histomonas; low therapeutic index; hepatotoxic to lories, some passerines (e.g., robins) and fledgling birds;43 not recommended for finches; highly toxic to geese, ducks, and pigeons;757 not available in many countries (United States, European Union) because of human health risks; Canada has banned use in food-producing animals;561 do not give during breeding season43 |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 10 days543 | Falcons/Enterocytozoon bieneusi | |
50 mg/kg PO or in drinking water q24h × 6 days126 | Pigeons | |
100 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries, finches | |
200-400 mg/L drinking water × 5 days13,70 | Psittacines, game birds | |
250 mg/L drinking water × 4-6 days49 | Gouldian finches/Cochlostoma, Trichomonas | |
265 mg/L drinking water102 | Pigeons | |
300 mg/L drinking water × 10 days43 | Bustards/prevention of Trichomonas | |
400 mg/L drinking water × 3 days367 | Pigeons/PD; bioavailability reduced with feed | |
666 mg/L drinking water × 7-12 days43 | Pigeons/Trichomonas, Giardia, Hexamita | |
800 mg/L drinking water757 | Poultry, game birds | |
900 mg/L drinking water × 5 days, followed by 700 mg/L × 10 days43 | Bustards/treatment of choice for Trichomonas | |
¼-½ tsp/gal drinking water × 3-5 days323 | Pigeons/CNS symptoms if overdosed; because of variable water consumption, use lower dose in hot weather and higher dose in cool weather | |
½ tsp/gal drinking water × 5 days671 | Lories, mynahs | |
1 tsp/gal drinking water × 5 days506,518 | Most species | |
185-187.5 mg/kg feed102,757 | Poultry, game birds | |
200-400 mg/kg feed362 | Chickens/highly effective against Histomonas | |
200-500 mg/kg feed102 | Ostriches (≤3 mo of age)/Trichomonas | |
250 mg/kg feed43 | Bustards/Trichomonas | |
Dinitolmide (Zoamix, Alpharma) | 40-187 mg/kg feed511 | Chickens, turkeys/coccidia |
Doramectin (Dectomax, Pfizer) | 1 mg/kg SC, IM,43 repeat in 2 weeks126 | Raptors, bustards/used to treat GI nematodes, lungworms, eyeworms, mites43 |
Febantel (Vercom, Rintal, Bayer) | 5 mg/kg PO511 | Ostriches |
20 mg/kg PO511 | Ostriches | |
30 mg/kg PO once41 | Pigeons/PD; ascarids; repeated doses required to eliminate Capillaria obsignata | |
37.5 mg/kg PO once43 | Pigeons | |
Fenbendazole (Panacur, Intervet) | — | Most species/anthelmintic effective against cestodes, nematodes, trematodes, Giardia, acanthocephalans; toxicity documented in pigeons and doves;361,594,676 may be toxic for other species, including raptors,692 vultures,75,363 lories,594 storks;75,839 can cause feather abnormalities if administered during molting;43 ineffective against finch ventricular worms43 |
1.5-3.9 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days793 | Chickens/PK, PD; Capillaria | |
8 mg/bird PO once43,126 | Pigeons/(>8 wk old) | |
10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days126,324 | Pigeons/nematodes | |
10-50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days363,397 | Raptors/nematodes, trematodes | |
12 mg/kg PO102 | Partridges, pheasants/Syngamus, Heterakis, Ascaridia | |
15 mg/kg PO388 | Ostriches/“wire worms”, cestodes | |
15 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days43 | Psittacines | |
15-25 mg/kg PO × 4-5 days737 | Tinamous | |
15-45 mg/kg PO102 | Ostriches | |
20 mg/kg PO once43,834 | Waterfowl, pheasants/cestodes, nematodes, acanthocephalans; reduced Heterakis and Eimeria in pheasants | |
20 mg/kg PO q24h × 10-14 days149 | Raptors/filarids | |
20-25 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days149,261,657 | Raptors/Capillaria | |
20-50 mg/kg PO q24h43,812 | Psittacines, pigeons/ascarids in psittacines, treat once and repeat in 10 days; trematodes and microfilaria, treat for 3 days; Capillaria, treat for 5 days | |
20-50 mg/kg q24h × 3 days, repeat in 21 days363 | Raptors | |
20-100 mg/kg PO once506 | Most species | |
25 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days141,746 | Most species, including owls/ascarids | |
25 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days,126 repeat in 10-14 days363 | Raptors/Capillaria, spirurids | |
30 mg/kg PO once43 | Bustards | |
33 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days147 | Psittacines, passerines, raptors/microfilaria, trematodes | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days141,571,693 | Most species, including pigeons, Bali mynahs/nematodes, trematodes, Giardia | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days141 | Most species/Capillaria | |
50 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days692 | Cockatoos/filarid adulticide treatment; use with ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg once) | |
100 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 10-14 days363 | Raptors/Capillaria, spirurids | |
100 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days111 | Cranes/Capillaria | |
50 mg/L drinking water × 5 days506 | Finches | |
125 mg/L drinking water × 5 days506 | Most species/nematodes | |
53 mg/kg in feed × 5-7 days757 | Game birds/nematodes, trematodes | |
80 mg/kg feed793 | Chickens/PK, PD; Capillaria | |
Fipronil (Frontline, Merial) | 7.5 mg/kg; spray on skin once, repeat in 30 days prn43,126,261 | Raptors, pigeons, passerines/ectoparasites; apply via pad to base of neck, tail base, and under each wing; avoid plumage during application; alcohol may create dry, brittle feathers; do not soak bird; do not exceed 7.5 mg/kg |
Flubendazole (Flutelmium 7.5%, Janssen-Cilag) | 30-60 mg/kg feed × 7 days737 | Tinamous |
60 mg/kg feed × 7-14 days102,146 | Partridges, pheasants | |
Halofuginone (Collgard Biopharmaceuticals) | — | Not available in the United States |
1.3-2.72 mg/kg feed119 | Turkeys/coccidia; not approved for birds intended for food | |
2.7 mg/kg feed119 | Chickens/coccidia, Plasmodium | |
Hydroxychloroquine sulfate (Plaquenil, Sanofi Winthrop) | — | Antimalarial |
830 mg/L drinking water × 6 wk387 | Pigeons/Plasmodium | |
Hygromycin B (Hygromix 8, Elanco) | — | Aminoglycoside antibiotic used as anthelmintic feed additive |
9-13 mg/kg feed757 | Game birds/ascarids, cecal worms; some efficacy against Capillaria | |
18-26 mg/kg feed × 2 mo757 | Game birds/cecal worms | |
Imidocarb dipropionate (Imizol, Intervet/Schering-Plough) | — | Antiprotozoal effective against Babesia |
5-7 mg/kg IM once, repeat in 7 days709,850 | Raptors/Babesia; some cases require a total of 3 treatments | |
Ipronidazole (Ipropran, Roche) | — | Giardia, Trichomonas, Histomonas; not available in the United States; 61 g/2.65 oz |
130 mg/L drinking water × 7 days37,506 | Most species, including pigeons | |
250 mg/L drinking water × 3-7 days518,693 | Psittacines, pigeons | |
Ivermectin (Ivomec, Merial) | — | All species/most nematodes, acanthocephalans, leeches, most ectoparasites (including Knemidokoptes, Dermanyssus); can dilute with water or saline for immediate use; dilute with propylene glycol for extended use; parenteral ivermectin may be toxic to finches and budgerigars;147 suspected toxicity reported in a Nanday conure at 0.2 mg/kg605 |
0.2 mg/kg PO, SC, IM once, can repeat in 10-14 days43,63,111,126,323,324,355,384,581,692,757 | Most species, including psittacines, passerines, pigeons, raptors, Guinea fowl, waterfowl, ratites, cranes/use in combination with fenbendazole at 50 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days for microfilaria in cockatoos692 | |
0.2 mg/kg SC, topical on skin; can repeat 1-2 weeks for 3-4 applications126,173,203 | Canaries/quill mites, Knemidokoptes; dilute to 0.02% solution with propylene glycol; can apply directly to lesions on cere, legs | |
0.4 mg/kg SC once409 | Passerines (towhees)/Capillaria | |
0.4 mg/kg SC once506 | Raptors | |
0.5-1 mg/kg PO, IM once323 | Pigeons | |
1 mg/kg SC, repeat in 7 days705 | Falcons/Serratospiculum | |
2 mg/kg IM once791 | Falcons/Capillaria; no adverse effects observed at this dose | |
0.8-1 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
1 drop (0.05 mL) to skin q7d × 3 treatments43 | Pigeons, passerines/Knemidokoptes, Dermanyssus | |
Lasalocid (Avatec, Alpharma) | 67-125 mg/kg feed continuously102,757,787 | Game birds, chickens/coccidia |
Levamisole (Tramisol, Schering-Plough) | — | Many species/nematodes; immunostimulant; low therapeutic index (toxic reactions, deaths reported); do not use in debilitated birds;43,506 IM administration may cause severe toxicity; limb paralysis, vomiting, dyspnea reported in a parakeet; do not use in white-faced ibis672 or in lories; withhold food before treatment to prevent regurgitation506 |
2-5 mg/kg SC, IM, repeat in 10-14 days × 3 treatments43 | Psittacines/immunostimulant | |
7.5 mg/kg PO, SC102 | Ostriches | |
7.5 mg/kg IM once; can repeat in 7 days43 | Pigeons | |
10-20 mg/kg PO, SC q24h × 2 days149,363 | Raptors | |
10-20 mg/kg SC once43,506 | Most species | |
15-20 mg/bird PO once, repeat in 10 days126 | Pigeons | |
20 mg/kg PO once43,506 | Psittacines, pigeons, raptors | |
20-25 mg/kg SC757 | Game birds | |
20-50 mg/kg PO, SC once43 | Waterfowl | |
30 mg/kg PO q10d810 | Ratites | |
40 mg/kg PO once43,216,324,506 | Psittacines, pigeons, chickens, raptors/Capillaria; significantly higher bioavailability, volume of distribution and total body clearance in laying hens216 | |
100-200 mg/L drinking water × 3 days126,147 | Psittacines, passerines, raptors | |
264-396 mg/L drinking water × 1-3 days324,506 | Most species, including pigeons | |
265-525 mg/L drinking water × 1 day, repeat in 7-14 days757,849 | Game birds, poultry | |
375 mg/L drinking water as sole water source for 24 hr, repeat in 7 days43 | Pigeons | |
Maduramicin ammonium (Cygro, Alpharma) | 5-6 mg/kg feed511,787 | Chickens, turkeys/coccidia; not available in the United States |
Malathion (Prozap Malathion 57EC, Loveland) | Dilute to 0.93%; paint or spray perches and premises43 | Raptors/organophosphate; premise treatment; Dermanyssus |
Mebendazole (Telmin Suspension, Telmintic Powder, Schering-Plough) | 5-6 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days, repeat in 21 days387 | Pigeons |
5-7 mg/kg PO810 | Ostriches | |
5-15 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days43,534 | Waterfowl/nematodes | |
10 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days506 | Canaries/avoid use during breeding season | |
20 mg/kg PO q24h × 10-14 days43,149 | Raptors/filarids | |
25 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days159,672 | Psittacines, ramphastids (toucans)/nematodes; may not be effective for proventricular and ventricular parasites | |
25 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days, repeat q30d363 | Raptors/intestinal nematodiasis | |
50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days363 | Raptors/intestinal nematodiasis | |
10-21 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days387 | Pigeons | |
1.2 mg/kg feed × 14 days63 | Waterfowl/nematodes | |
Mefloquine HCl (Lariam, Hoffman-LaRoche) | — | Antimalarial; active against erythrocytic and tissue schizonts of some Plasmodium665,792 |
30 mg/kg PO q12h × 1 day, then q24h × 1-2 days399,792,850 | Raptors | |
30 mg/kg PO q12h × 1 day, then q24h × 2 days, then q7d × 6 mo399 | Raptors/long term administration | |
30 mg/kg PO once weekly660 | Raptors/Plasmodium routine prevention during insect season | |
50 mg/kg q24h551 | Raptors/Haemoproteus; used in conjunction with chloroquine at doses up to 60 mg/kg | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days126 | Raptors/Plasmodium | |
Melarsomine dihydrochloride (Immiticide, Merial) | — | Organic arsenical |
0.25 mg/kg IM q24h × 4 days126 | Raptors/Leucocytozoon | |
Melarsomine dihydrochloride (M)/ivermectin (I) (Merial) | (M) 0.25 mg/kg IM q 24h × 2 days followed 10 days later with (I) 1 mg/kg IM43,789 | Falcons/Serratospiculum; reduced clinical signs and eliminated shedding of embryonated eggs789 |
Metronidazole | — | Most species/antiprotozoal, including alimentary tract protozoa (especially flagellates such as Giardia, Histomonas, Spironucleus, Trichomonas) |
10-20 mg/kg IM q12-24h × 2 days359,506 | Pigeons, psittacines | |
10-30 mg/kg PO, IM q12h × 10 days43,812 | Psittacines | |
20-25 mg/kg PO q12h810 | Ratites | |
25 mg/kg PO q12h × 2-10 days402 | Psittacine neonates | |
25 mg/kg PO q12h × 10 days119 | Turkeys/Trichomonas | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 5-10 days359 | Companion birds/treatment, control, or prevention of Giardia, Trichomonas, and Hexamita | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h324 | Pigeons/use lower dose with twice daily dosing | |
30 mg/kg PO via gavage once230 | Finches/Cochlosoma | |
30 mg/kg PO q12h167 | Poultry/PK, PD | |
30 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-10 days49,548,654 | Raptors, gouldian finches, psittacines/Trichomonas | |
30-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days660 | Raptors/Trichomonas | |
40 mg/kg PO q24h645 | Rheas | |
40 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days644 | Budgerigars/Trichomonas | |
40-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-7 days126 | Pigeons | |
50 mg/kg PO119 | Waterfowl/flagellates | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-7 days43,149,261,363 | Raptors/Trichomonas, Giardia | |
50 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days126,693 | Pigeons, passerines | |
100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days707 | Falcons/Trichomonas | |
100-150 mg PO total dose divided over 5 days43 | Pigeons | |
110 mg/kg PO q12h321 | Poultry/Histomonas | |
40 mg/L drinking water230 | Finches/Cochlosoma | |
100 mg/L drinking water198 | Canaries | |
200 mg/L drinking water × 7 days126 | Passerines | |
370 mg/L drinking water773 | Passerines/protozoal sinusitis | |
400 mg/L drinking water × 5-15 days757,773 | Game birds, passerines/protozoal sinusitis | |
1057 mg/L drinking water324 | Pigeons | |
1250 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days534 | Ratites | |
100 mg/kg soft feed198 | Canaries | |
200-400 mg/kg feed362 | Chickens/highly effective against Histomonas but reduced weight gains at higher dosage | |
Milbemycin oxime (Interceptor, Novartis) | 2 mg/kg PO, repeat in 28 days340 | Galliformes/nematodes |
Monensin (Coban 45, Elanco) | — | Ionophore antibiotic anticoccidial feed additive |
53-94 mg/kg feed × 10 wk123,757 | Turkeys | |
73 mg/kg feed × 10 wk119 | Quail | |
94 mg/kg feed114,757 | Quail, cranes/coccidia (including disseminated visceral coccidiosis) | |
94-108 mg/kg feed × 8 wk757 | Chickens | |
99 mg/kg feed115 | Sandhill cranes/prevented experimentally induced disseminated visceral coccidiosis | |
99.2 mg/kg feed647 | Turkeys/23/33 Eimeria isolates resistant | |
Moxidectin (ProHeart, Fort Dodge) | — | Treatment of Serratospiculum, Capillaria, acanthocephalans, Paraspiralatus sakeri, and Physaloptera alata in falcons43 |
0.2 mg/kg PO126,705 | Raptors/nematodes | |
0.2 mg/kg IM once159 | Ramphastids (toucans)/repeat if necessary | |
0.5 mg/kg PO43 | Raptors | |
0.5-1 mg/kg PO126 | Raptors/Capillaria | |
1 mg/bird topically once, or can repeat q10d × 2 treatments | Budgerigars/Knemidokoptes; no adverse effects seen at this dose in this speciesa | |
Narasin (Monteban 45, Elanco) | 20-80 mg/kg feed787 | Chickens/prophylatic coccidiostat; toxic to turkeys |
Nicarbazin (Nicarb 25%, Merck AgVet) | 20-125 mg/kg feed787 | Chickens/prophylactic coccidiostat |
Niclosamide (Yomesan, Bayer) | — | Cestodes, trematodes; rarely used since praziquantel is more efficacious; may be toxic for geese and some Anseriformes; not available in the United States |
50-100 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days413 | Ostriches | |
220 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days329 | Most species | |
250 mg/kg PO q14d prn110 | Cranes | |
500 mg/kg PO q7d × 4 wk329 | Finches | |
Oxfendazole (Benzelmin, Syntex) | 5 mg/kg PO once146 | Ostriches/nematodes |
10-40 mg/kg PO once506,767 | Most species, including finches/nematodes | |
15-25 mg/kg PO once159 | Ramphastids (toucans)/repeat in 15 days prn | |
20 mg/kg PO once341 | Raptors | |
Paromomycin (Humatin, Caraco-Pharma) | — | Highest efficacy of all drugs tested thus far against Cryptosporidium; oocyst output decreased by 67-82% in chickens;756 may result in secondary bacterial or mycotic infections; use with caution if ulcerative bowel lesions are suspected because renal toxicity may occur;359 ineffective against Histomonas362 |
100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days136,261 | Most species, including macaw chicks, falcons/mix a 250 mg capsule with 10 ml water to facilitate dosing; poorly absorbed | |
1000 mg/kg soft food or hulled millet49 | Gouldian finches/Cryptosporidium; may predispose to fungal infections | |
Permethrin (Adams, Pfizer) | Dust plumage lightly43 | Pigeons/lice, fleas |
Permethrin/piperonyl butoxide/methoprene (Avian Insect Liquidator, Vetafarm) | Apply to plumage; spray cages, aviaries, bird rooms, surroundings43 | Most species/lice, mites, flies, mosquitoes, moths; not available in the United States |
Phenylarsonic acid (Merck European Laboratories) | 22-45 mg/kg119 | Chickens, turkeys/Histomonas prevention; not recommended or approved for game birds; not available in the United States |
Piperazine (Wazine, Fleming Laboratories) | — | Most species/ascarids, oxyurids; less efficacious than fenbendazole; seldom used in companion birds |
35 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days324 | Pigeons/ascarids | |
45-200 mg/kg PO once671 | Waterfowl/Tetrameres, Capillaria | |
50-100 mg/kg PO once534,757 | Emus, ostriches, chickens | |
100 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days397,506 | Raptors | |
100-400 mg/bird PO757 | Turkeys | |
100-500 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 10-14 days757 | Game birds | |
250 mg/kg PO once506 | Psittacines, pigeons | |
79 mg/L drinking water × 2 days324 | Pigeons/ascarids | |
1000 mg/L drinking water × 3 days63,506 | Raptors, pigeons | |
1000 mg/L drinking water; repeat in 10-14 days43 | Gallinaceous birds/not effective in psittacines, finches | |
1000-2000 mg/L drinking water × 1-2 days102,126,757 | Game birds, pigeons | |
1600-2600 mg/L drinking water119 | Waterfowl/Tetrameres, Capillaria | |
3700 mg/L drinking water × 12 hr, repeat in 14-21 days126 | Passerines | |
Piperonyl butoxide/pyrethrin (Ridmite Powder, Johnson) | Dust plumage, repeat in 10 days43 | Psittacines |
Dust plumage, repeat in 21 days43 | Raptors | |
Ponazuril (Marquis 5% paste; Bayer) | — | Triazine coccidiocidal drug; metabolite of toltrazuril |
20 mg/kg q24h × 7 days829 | Falcons/respiratory Cryptosporidium baileyi | |
Praziquantel (Droncit, Bayer) | — | Most species/cestodes, trematodes; toxic in finches and associated with depression, death in some species43,672 |
1 mg/kg PO43 | Bustards/well tolerated | |
5-10 mg/kg PO, repeat after 2-4 wk43,147,149 | Psittacines, passerines, raptors | |
5-10 mg/kg PO, SC q24h × 14 days43,63,119,363 | Raptors, waterfowl/trematodes | |
6 mg/kg PO, IM, repeat in 10-14 days111 | Cranes | |
7.5 mg/kg PO70,534 | Ostriches | |
7.5 mg/kg SC, IM repeat in 2-4 wk126,147 | Most species, except finches | |
8.5 mg/kg IM16 | Chickens | |
9 mg/kg IM, repeat in 10 days43,64 | Psittacines/cestodes | |
10 mg/kg PO, IM, SC once; repeat in 7 days261 | Raptors/cestodes, trematodes | |
10 mg/kg SC, IM q24h × 3 days, then PO × 11 days363,812 | Psittacines, raptors/trematodes | |
10 mg/kg PO16 | Chickens | |
10 mg/kg IM q24h × 3 days, then PO q24h × 11 days286 | Toucans/trematodes | |
10 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q24h × 14 days43,159 | Waterfowl, toucans/trematodes; in toucans, follow with 6 mg/kg PO q24h × 14 days672 | |
10-20 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days43,70,126,324 | Most species including pigeons, waterfowl | |
10-20 mg/kg SC, IM, repeat in 10 days63 | Waterfowl/cestodes | |
11 mg/kg SC once16 | Chickens | |
25 mg/kg PO, IM, repeat in 10-14 days570 | Bali mynahs/cestodes | |
30-50 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, repeat in 14 days363,397 | Raptors/cestodes | |
12 mg crushed and baked into 9” × 9” × 2” cake506 | Finches/withhold regular feed | |
Primaquine | — | Pigeons, raptors, game birds, penguins/hematozoa (i.e., Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon); use in conjunction with chloroquine; dosage based on amount of active base rather than total tablet weight |
0.03 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days134,671,757 | Game birds, penguins | |
0.3 mg/kg PO (at 24 hr following the initial chloroquine dose) q24h × 7 days113 | Raptors/use with chloroquine (10 mg/kg at 0 hr, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 24, and 48 hr) | |
0.3 mg/kg PO q24h × 10 days266 | Penguins/Plasmodium; use with chloroquine (10 mg/kg at 0 hr, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 18, and 24 hr) | |
0.75 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days790 | Falcons/Haemoproteus tinnunculi | |
0.75-1 mg/kg PO once661,747 | Most species, including raptors/Plasmodium; use with chloroquine (25 mg/kg at 0 hr, then 15 mg/kg at 12, 24, and 48 hr); palliative therapy | |
1 mg/kg PO q7d661 | Most species/use with chloroquine (10 mg/kg q7d) as a preventative regimen for birds recovering from Plasmodium infection | |
1 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days, repeat q7d × 3-5 treatments to prevent relapse661 | Raptors/Plasmodium; use with chloroquine (20 mg/kg IV initially, followed by 10 mg/kg PO at 6, 18, and 24 hr) | |
1 mg/kg PO q24h × 45 days843 | Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis; use in combination with amprolium, enrofloxacin and pyrimethamine | |
1.25 mg/kg PO q24h266 | Penguins/prophylactic therapy against Plasmodium | |
Pyrantel pamoate | — | Intestinal nematodes |
4.5 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days43,853 | Psittacines, including cockatoo chicks853 | |
5-7 mg/kg PO810 | Ostriches | |
7 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days141 | Most species | |
7-20 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days363 | Raptors | |
20 mg/kg PO once43,149 | Raptors | |
20-25 mg/kg PO324 | Pigeons | |
70 mg/kg PO once159 | Ramphastids (toucans)/repeat if necessary | |
148 mg/L drinking water692 | Psittacines, pigeons/medication floats | |
Pyrethrins (0.15%) (Adams, Pfizer) | Dust plumage lightly to moderately prn63,692 | Most species, including psittacines, pigeons/ectoparasites |
Pyrimethamine (Fansidar, Roche) | — | Toxoplasma, Atoxoplasma, Sarcocystis; may be effective for Leucocytozoon; supplement with folic or folinic acid |
0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days43,149 | Raptors, waterfowl/Sarcocystis, Toxoplasma | |
0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-28 days126,141 | Most species/use for 28 days for Leucocytozoon in raptors126 | |
0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days63 | Waterfowl/Sarcocystis | |
0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 45 days843 | Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis; use in combination with amprolium and primaquine | |
0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 2-4 days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days359 | Companion birds/Sarcocystis; use in combination with trimethoprim-sulfa 5 mg/kg IM q12h or 30-100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days | |
0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days592 | Eclectus, Amazon parrots/use with trimethoprim-sulfadiazine (30 mg/kg) | |
1 mg/kg feed757 | Game birds | |
100 mg/kg feed141 | Most species | |
Quinacrine HCl (Atabrine, Sanofi) | — | Most species/Atoxoplasma, Plasmodium; chloroquine and primaquine are preferred; overdosage may cause hepatoxicity506 |
5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days392,506 | Most species/use higher doses for Lankesterella, Plasmodium | |
7.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 10 days506 | Most species/Atoxoplasma | |
26-79 mg/L drinking water × 10-21 days324 | Pigeons | |
Rafoxanide (Flukex, Univet; Ranide, MSD) | 10 mg/kg PO876 | Raptors/trematodes, cestodes; not available in the United States |
Resorantel (Terenol-S, Intervet) | 130 mg/kg PO413,511 | Ostriches/cestodes; administer with or without fenbendazole |
Robenidine HCl (Bio-Cox, Alpharma) | 4-6 mg/kg PO q24h × 6 days511 | Pigeons/prophylaxis for coccidiosis |
6-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 6-10 days511 | All species | |
4 mg/L drinking water × 7 days506 | Songbirds | |
10-20 mg/L drinking water × 7 days506,511 | Cockatiels, pigeons | |
100 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days506,511 | Pigeons | |
33 mg/kg feed511,787 | Chickens | |
Ronidazole (Ronivet-S, Vetafarm) | 2.5 mg/kg PO × 6 days324 | Pigeons |
6-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 6-10 days506 | Most species | |
10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days126 | Pigeons | |
12.5 mg/kg PO × 6 days43 | Pigeons | |
50-400 mg/L drinking water × 5 days126 | Passerines | |
60 mg/L drinking water230 | Finches/Cochlosoma | |
100 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days702 | Pigeons/flock preventative dose; treatment of choice for Trichomonas308 | |
100-200 mg/L drinking water × 7 days506 | Cockatiels, pigeons/higher dosage required for resistant strains in pigeons | |
100-600 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days324 | Pigeons | |
400 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days43,198,511 | Canaries, pigeons/flock treatment; Trichomonas; preventive dose43 | |
600 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days43 | Pigeons/Trichomonas; flock treatment | |
1000 mg/L drinking water q24h126 | Pigeons/equivalent to 12.5 mg/kg/day | |
400 mg/kg soft feed198,511 | Canaries | |
Rotenone (Ear Miticide, Vedco) | Topical876 | Most species/Knemidokoptes |
Selamectin (Revolution, Pfizer) | — | No adverse effects, including neurological signs, were seen in healthy zebra finches with doses up to 92 mg/kg69 |
23 mg/kg topically, repeat in 3-4 weeks68 | Budgerigars/Knemidokoptes improvement in 13/14 birds at 4 wk, with no neurologic signs identified but monitor for weight loss | |
Sulfachlorpyrazine (ESB3, Novartis) | — | Coccidiostat; affects the intestinal stages of Atoxoplasma;198 not available in the United States, but can be obtained through the Bali mynah Species Survival Plan572 |
1 g of 30% powder/L drinking water × 5 days, off 3 days, on 5 days, then repeat cycle 4x; administer treatment 3x annually572 | Bali mynahs/Atoxoplasma; significantly reduced or totally cleared oocyst shedding for extended time; it is uncertain if the drug is safe to use when parents are feeding chicks; supplement with vitamin B6 | |
Sulfachlorpyridazine (Vetisulid, Boehringer-Ingelheim) | — | Coccidiostat; used as replacement for sulfachlorpyrazine in the United States |
150-300 mg/L drinking water;198 5 days/wk × 2-3 weeks173 | Passerines, including canaries/may need to treat for months for systemic coccidiosis | |
300 mg/L drinking water × 5 days, off 3 days, on 5 days, then repeat cycle 4x; administer treatment 3x annually572 | Passerines, including Bali mynahs/Atoxoplasma | |
300 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days324 | Pigeons | |
300-1000 mg/L drinking water × 3 days, off 2 days, then repeat course126 | Pigeons | |
400 mg/L drinking water × 30 days692 | Cockatiels, budgerigars/mixture is stable for up to 5 days if refrigerated; change daily; mix well | |
400-500 mg/L drinking water × 5 days, off 2 days, on 5 days506 | Most species | |
Sulfadimethoxine (12.5%) (Albon, Pfizer) | 20 mg/kg PO q12h96 | Most species/treatment and prophylaxis of coccidia |
25 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days324 | Most species | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days397 | Raptors | |
25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, then q24h × 3 days363 | Raptors | |
25-55 mg/kg PO q 24h × 3-7 days658 | Raptors/Eimeria, Sarcocystis | |
50 mg/kg PO once, then 25 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days363 | Raptors | |
50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days, off 3 days, on 5 days812 | Psittacines | |
250 mg/kg IM q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days92 | Pigeons/PK, PD; close to toxic level | |
250 mg/L drinking water × 5 days757 | Turkeys | |
330-400 mg/L drinking water × 1 day then 200 mg/L × 4 days324 | Pigeons/supplement with vitamin B for 5 days | |
500 mg/L drinking water × 6 days757 | Chickens | |
Sulfadimethoxine/ormetoprim (Rofenaid, Hoffmann-La Roche) | 10 mg/kg feed757 | Game birds/coccidia, Leucocytozoon, Sarcocystis |
320-525 mg/L drinking water321 | Poultry | |
Sulfadimidine sodium (33.3%) (Neotrizine, Lilly) | 40-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days or 3 days on, 2 days off126 | Pigeons |
50-150 mg/kg PO, IM q24h × 5-7 days242 | Raptors/coccidia; lack of efficacy reported in merlins262 | |
3330-6660 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days on, 2 days off repeated twice43 | Pigeons/coccidia; may be effective against Toxoplasma | |
Sulfamethazine (Sulmet, Boehringer-Ingelheim) | — | See sulfonamides; coccidiostat; consider vitamin B supplementation |
50-65 mg/pigeon PO × 3 days, off 2-3 days, repeat × 2-3 days434 | Pigeons | |
50-65 mg/pigeon PO × 5 days324,434 | Pigeons/supplement vitamin B for 5 days324 | |
75 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days506 | Parakeets | |
125-185 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days, then 64-94 mg/kg × 4 days388 | Chickens | |
125 mg/L drinking water × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days506 | Most species | |
400 mg/L drinking water once, then 200-270 mg/L × 4 days324 | Pigeons | |
Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-50, Solvay) | — | Sulfonamide used for prevention and treatment of coccidiosis |
100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days506 | Lories, pigeons | |
250 mg/L drinking water × 6 days, off 2 days, on 6 days692 | Turkeys | |
400 mg/L (1.4 mL/L) drinking water × 6 days, off 2 days, on 6 days692 | Chickens | |
500 mg/L (1.8 mL/L) drinking water × 6 days, off 2 days, on 6 days693 | Pigeons | |
225 mg/kg feed continuously757 | Turkeys | |
450 mg/kg feed continuously757 | Chickens | |
Sulfonamides | — | Competitvely inhibit para-aminobenzoic acid, required by schizonts for folic acid synthesis;434 contraindicated with dehydration, liver disease, or bone marrow suppression; gastrointestinal upset, regurgitation are common, especially in macaws; use for longer than 2 wk may require vitamin B (folic acid) supplementation |
Thiabendazole | — | Most species/nematodes, acanthocephalans; generally less efficacious than fenbendazole; may be toxic to cranes, ratites, diving ducks43 |
40-100 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days506 | Most species | |
50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days534 | Ostriches | |
100 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 10-14 days747 | Raptors | |
100 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days387 | Most species/gapeworms, ascarids | |
100-200 mg/kg PO q12h × 10 days149 | Raptors/nematodes; may interfere with egg laying | |
100-500 mg/kg PO once506 | Most species | |
250-500 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days43,812 | Most species, including psittacines/ascarids | |
425 mg/kg feed × 14 days113,757 | Pheasants, cranes | |
Tinidazole (Fasigyn, Pfizer) | 50 mg/kg PO once506 | Most species/Giardia, Trichomonas, Entamoeba |
200-400 mg/kg feed362 | Chickens/Histomonas; depressed weight gain on higher dosage | |
Toltrazuril (Baycox, Bayer) | — | Coccidiocidal;434 efficacious for refractory coccidiosis; has been successful in reducing mortality from Atoxoplasma in canaries and other passerines and may affect systemic stages of the disease;572 not very effective against Atoxoplasma when given in water; bitter taste, mixing with soft drink (i.e., cola) increases palatability;43 2.5% solution is very alkaline and should not be gavaged directly into the crop434 |
7 mg/kg PO q24h × 2-3 days358,397 | Budgerigars, raptors | |
10 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days658 | Raptors/preferred treatment for Caryospora | |
10 mg/kg PO q48h × 3 treatments43 | Raptors/treatment of choice for coccidiosis in falcons | |
12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 14 days570 | Bali mynahs/Atoxoplasma; dosage is based on a limited number of clinical cases | |
15-25 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days43 | Raptors | |
20-35 mg/kg PO once830 | Pigeons/higher dose prevents shedding up to 4 wk; lower dose is minimum dose required to suppress oocyst shedding | |
25 mg/kg PO q7d × 3 treatments126,261 | Raptors/Caryospora, coccidiosis | |
2 mg/L drinking water × 2 consecutive days/wk147 | Psittacines | |
5 mg/L drinking water × 2 days, repeat in 14-21 days471 | Lories/10 mg/L administered during second course of treatment | |
12.5 mg/L drinking water × 2 days43 | Waterfowl | |
20 mg/kg in drinking water × 2 days434 | Pigeons | |
25 mg/L drinking water × 2 days213 | Chickens/effective in preventing disease and reducing total oocysts, lesions, and mortality in infected birds with mixed Eimeria infections | |
25 mg/L drinking water × 2 days, repeat in 5 days307 | Geese | |
25 mg/L drinking water × 2 days, repeat in 14-21 days471 | Cockatiels, passerines (including goldfinches, manikins, siskins)/coccidia | |
75 mg/L drinking water × 2 days/wk × 4 wk173 | Passerines | |
75 mg/L drinking water × 5 days325 | Pigeons | |
125 mg/L drinking water × 5 days43 | Pigeons | |
Trimethoprim/sulfachlorpyridazine (1:5 ratio; Cosumix Plus, Novartis) | — | See sulfonamides |
400 mg/kg feed388,672 | Geese | |
Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine (Di-Trim, Boehringer-Ingelheim; Duphatrim 24% injection, Solvay) | — | See sulfonamides |
5 mg/kg IM q12h359 | Companion birds/Sarcocystis; use in conjunction with pyrimethamine (0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 2 days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days) | |
30 mg/kg PO q8-12h65,363 | Most species, including psittacines, raptors/Sarcocystis (treat for at least 6 wk); coccidia | |
30-100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days359 | Companion birds/Sarcocystis; use in conjunction with pyrimethamine (0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 2 days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days) | |
60 mg/kg PO, SC q12h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days43 | Raptors, waterfowl/coccidia | |
80 mg/mL drinking water (trimethoprim)/40 mg/mL water (sulfadiazine)852 | Canaries/Toxoplasma gondii | |
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim, Roche; Septra, Burroughs Welcome) | 25 mg/kg PO q24h672 | Toucans, mynahs/coccidia |
30 mg/kg PO q12-24h126 | Passerines/antiprotozoal | |
320-525 mg/L drinking water321 | Poultry/coccidia | |
480 mg/L drinking water q24h126 | Pigeons/antiprotozoal |
a Toparlak M. Personal communication. 1999.