The term gamebird describes any species of bird that may be used for hunting, including upland gamebirds, waterfowl, and woodland birds. Upland gamebirds include pheasants, chukar partridges, red‐legged partridges, Hungarian partridges, bobwhite quail, and wild turkeys. Mallard ducks are the most common waterfowl raised commercially for release (Figure 8.1).

An important program which includes biosecurity in these groups of birds is the National Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP). The NPIP was established in the early 1930s as a cooperative industry, state, and federal program to reduce and/or eradicate several vertically transmitted diseases and diseases of important economic and regulatory significance in poultry in the USA. This program is discussed at length in Chapter 2. Participation in the NPIP is a very important component of a biosecurity program. Currently exhibition poultry, ornamental and hobby upland gamebirds (such as golden pheasants, impeyans, and Lady Amherst breeds) and backyard waterfowl participate in Subpart E of this program. In 2019 subpart J was added to the NPIP for the large, commercial gamebird industry including raised‐for‐release gamebirds, gamebird breeding flocks, and gamebirds raised for meat and eggs.

It is important not to confuse the terms gamebirds, which are birds raised for hunting purposes, and game fowl, which are chickens raised for hobby purposes, breeding, and exhibition. Within this second category there are breeds known as old English game chickens which some have used for illegal cockfighting. Small hobby flock owners often raise multiple bird species including gamebirds, chickens, turkeys, and waterfowl. Large commercial gamebird operations usually have one or two gamebird breeds on their farms but, as the name implies, have thousands of birds on their premises. Because commercial flocks and hobby flocks have different management, flock size, purpose, and biosecurity risks, they will be covered separately in this chapter.

8.1 Commercial Gamebird Production

As hunting opportunities for wild gamebirds declined in the US due to reduced habitat and urbanization, commercial production of gamebirds developed to meet the needs of hunters. Both gamebird production and hunting preserves increase productivity of existing agricultural land and allow farmers to derive income from the land year round, including the winter months.

The gamebird industry is made up of breeding operations, hatcheries, brooding, rearing to release, and hunting preserves. These activities often coexist within one operation with little geographical separation. Some gamebird producers also raise multiple gamebird species on the same farm. This consolidation of activities is done for optimization of labor and a hedge against possible fluctuating markets for the various products sold. However, biosecurity measures and confining disease outbreaks to a limited number of animals/pens can be challenging under this type of management.

Gamebirds are usually started indoors in brooder houses similar to those used in commercial poultry. At approximately 5 weeks of age (this age can vary considerable between farms), game chicks are allowed outside access. This can create a biosecurity challenge as exposure to wild birds is possible. In the case of quail chicks, while they can also be moved out to flight pens, many growers, especially in the southern US, keep them indoors until maturity. When birds reach maturity, around 17–21 weeks of age, they can be released onto hunting preserves or sold to outside preserve operators.

Commercial gamebird producers may market several products including hatching eggs, day‐old chicks, started birds of various ages, flight‐ready birds, and adult breeders. Eggs are usually sold from March to July, chicks are typically marketed from April through August, started birds are sold from June through September, and raised‐for‐release birds from September through mid‐April coinciding with the hunting season. Birds and/or eggs can be sold and transported regionally or in many cases shipped long distances to customers. Most large commercial producers transport birds on their own in specially designed vehicles (Figure 8.2). Smaller flocks of chicks or ducks are often shipped via the United States Postal System (USPS) or other carriers.

8.2 Biosecurity Recommendations

Biosecurity is a term used to describe a group of measures taken to keep pathogens and disease out or contained in the event of disease occurrence. They consist of measures to prevent the spread of that disease to other units in the same business or to neighbors [1]. These measures are often focused on keeping foreign animal diseases (FADs) out of flocks but also help to prevent the introduction of multiple infectious diseases in gamebirds such as fowl cholera, mycoplasma, erysipelas, botulism, salmonellosis, avian pox, marble spleen disease, Newcastle disease, avian influenza, and histomoniasis. For example, low‐pathogenicity avian influenza viruses regularly infect North American waterfowl and shore birds and present a risk to gamebirds. In addition, the NPIP Subpart J (Biosecurity principles for operations with 25 000 raised for release gamebirds or more) states in 9 CFR 53.10 that a written biosecurity plan is mandatory in order to receive 100% indemnity if a FAD infects a premises [2]. There are 13 components that need to be addressed in the written biosecurity plan.

1. 1. The farm must possess a biosecurity coordinator.
   
2. 2. Regular employee trainings on biosecurity must be held.
   
3. 3. Lines of separation (demarcate the areas where the birds can roam) must be established.
   
4. 4. Establishment of a perimeter buffer area (area that separates the barns or pens and other buildings or structures related with the enterprise from areas unrelated to the enterprise) must occur. Upon entrance to the facility, clothes changing stations or protective equipment use should be required. The Danish entry system is an option to physically separate clean and dirty areas and maintain biosecurity inside the premises (Figure 8.3).
   
5. 5. Clear biosecurity requirements for personnel must be in place, including but not limited to use of protective equipment, not having domestic or pet birds at home, traffic and movement specifications in the farm, etc.
   
6. 6. Rodent and vermin control plans should be written and in place for flies, rodents, predators, wild birds, waterfowl, etc. (Figure 8.4).
   
7. 7. A biosecurity plan for equipment and vehicles should be in place. Measures need to be taken to minimize disease introduction and spread due to use of equipment and vehicles, including use of washable crates, off‐farm bird transfers, cleaning and disinfection of vehicles and crates before returning to the farm, protective equipment use, tire wash stations, designated parking of vehicles away from bird pens, visitor log sign‐in, etc.
   
8. 8. A mortality disposal plan should be in place and include items such as daily bird pick‐up and use of on‐site biosecure disposal rather than rendering trucks. For example, carcasses should be stored in closed, vermin‐proof containers.
   
9. 9. The farm should have a litter and manure disposal plan that limits insect, rodents, and wild bird attraction such as properly performed composting.
   
10. 10. A biosecure replacement bird plan should be in place, such as obtaining birds from NPIP‐certified hatcheries.
    
11. 11. A clean water supply should be available, ideally from a municipal source or well as opposed to surface water sources that might attract wild waterfowl, and the water should be tested for microbial contamination and treated if necessary.
    
12. 12. Feed and replacement litter should be stored in a biosecure manner, limiting exposure to wild animals or vermin. Spilled feed should be disposed of promptly.
    
13. 13. Unexplained elevated mortality should be investigated to rule out any reportable disease. Submission of a sample of the mortality to an animal diagnostic laboratory for testing is recommended.

This biosecurity plan is audited by each state NPIP coordinator. The NPIP has added avian influenza surveillance and testing for upland gamebirds and raised‐for‐release waterfowl. Testing requirements and intervals can be viewed at www.poultryimprovement.org/documents/Biosecurity-Principles-and-Audit-Guidelines-2017-2020.pdf.

Because of the way in which gamebirds are managed, unique aspects need to be addressed as they affect biosecurity. Since the different productive units may be a part of the same premise, disease containment is one of the biggest challenges in these flocks. Biosecurity measures related to physical separation of breeding facilities and hatcheries from commercial birds and hunting preserves are mandatory. In addition, personnel should not be shared between these units. Breeding facilities and hatcheries should be highly biosecure since they are composed of expensive birds that are difficult to replace. Hatching eggs need to be aseptically processed in hatcheries, avoiding infections that might affect the chicks.

Most raised‐for‐release gamebirds are kept outdoors in flight pens. This can pose additional challenges to biosecurity. Perimeter fences and overhead netting are key to preventing predators gaining access to the birds (Figure 8.5). While overhead netting prevents the entrance of starlings, raptors, shore birds, and wild waterfowl, it does not prevent the access of small songbirds. Sometimes blackbirds and starlings roost on the netting, allowing their droppings to enter the gamebird pens. Noise cannons and other scare devices can be used to discourage roosting on the nets. Predators such as birds of prey attempt to capture birds near the netting, causing severe trauma to some of them (Figure 8.6). In addition, dogs, coyotes, foxes, mink, weasels, skunks, and racoons will try to dig underneath the fence. Sturdy fencing with underground and perimetral gravel is effective in deterring digging. Plastic sight barriers and electric fencing are also helpful. For rodent control, a holistic approach should be taken, including gravel surrounding the pens, bait stations in two perimeters outside the bird area, mowing weeds, and avoiding clutter. Bait stations need to be monitored for bait consumption and that information recorded to understand rodent activity. Finally, dead birds need to be collected immediately and properly disposed of to prevent scavengers and household pets from inadvertent poisoning.

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