See specific volumes below.

Congenital – Teratologic cases through time, anecdotal, and scientific, from antiquity to this day – including those mentioned in many mythologies (among them Indian, Egyptian, Nubian, Greek). A good example are the Gorgons of Greek myth, which had reptile features including snakes for hair. He also provides a historic overview and explains how newborn human frog-resembling monsters had been believed to result from hybridization until the mid eighteenth century.

He discussed theories on the lack of certain teratologies in batrachians (Baer 1828; Dareste 1877; Saint-Hilaire 1837).

Congenital – Theories on the origins of teratologies (Bruch 1867) and the merits of true double monster and hyper-regenerational causes of teratologies in batrachians.

Dicephalic ophidians survive longer than saurians.

Stated that true posterior body duplicity (a common teratology in mammals) had not been observed in reptiles, despite Tiedmann (1831) and Wiese (1812) having reported to have observed it in lizards.

Trauma – Bifid double tails are found in ofidians, saurians, and batrachians, citing Ambrosini as published in Aldrovandi (1642).

Pseudopathology – Reported that Aldrovandi (1642) received a donation of a live lizard that had two heads, with one being in place of the tail. This account was not only published by Aldrovandi (1642; p. 659, figs. V, VI), but also independently by Beltrami and Rigal (1831) and by Torquato Bembo of Padova, son of Cardinal Bembo (no publication year or title were provided).

Congenital – Review of the different types of teratology and noted how many animal cases were known of each. He remarked that of 24 cases of pleuromely (thoracomely) animals known, batrachians accounted for nearly half (11 in total) as also noted by Van Deen (1838), Van der Hoven (1840), Balsamo-Crivelli (1865), Ercolani (1882, 2 cases), Fabretti (1875) and Parona (no date given), Alessandrini (1854), and Strobel (1876).

Corrects last volume, relating Braun’s report of a dicephalic Salamandra maculosa and Born’s of a dicephalic Rana fusca.

Supernumerary limb in Rana (Ercolani 1882), noting one attached to the abdomen (gastromelia) and citing 11 cases of pleuromely and 9 cases of ileopolymely in Rana (Balsamo-Crivelli 1865; Duméril 1865; Fabretti 1875; Lunel 1868; Otto 1816, 1841; Strobel 1876 and Parona).

Femoral duplication was very rare in Rana (Otto 1816), Triton (Camerano 1882), and axolotl (in which humeral duplication also occurred) (Sordelli 1882).

Polymelia in Rana (Bassi 1874; Cavanna 1879; Gervais 1864).

Claimed polydactyly in urodels is acquired, not congenital and that new digits can be added (hyperregeneration), as shown by Siebold (1828), Duméril (1865), and Sordelli (1882).

Duplication of the foot in a single leg is rare; the only case known to him, Ercolani’s (1882) Rana esculenta.

Trauma – Claimed polydactyly in urodels is acquired, not congenital and that new digits can be added (hyperregeneration), as shown by Siebold (1828), Duméril (1865), and Sordelli (1882).

Congenital – Reviewed anecdotal reports of anomalous snakes (e.g., Giulio Capitolino).

Reviewed Aristotle’s “De generatione animalium” book IV, mentioning his explanation for the occurrence of a dicephalic snake.

Dicephalic lizards (Bibron cited by Saint-Hilaire 1836) and snakes (Aristotle, Aelianus, Aldrovandi 1642; Dutrochet 1829; Edwards 1751; Lacépède 1789; Lowne 1872; Porta, Lanzoni 1690; Redi 1684; Valentin 1704).

Double-faced reptiles and amphibians by [Catesby (as reviewed by Edwards 1754), Sack (1831) and Born (1881), but incorrectly cited and not found].

Supernumerary and abnormal limbs in frogs (Balsamo-Crivelli 1865; Bassi 1874; Cavanna 1877, 1879; Cisternas 1865; D’Alton 1853; Duméril 1865, Ercolani 1882; Fabretti 1875, Gervais 1864; Lunel 1869; Otto 1816, 1841; Parona 1883; Sordelli 1877, 1878; Strobel 1876; Van Deen 1838; Van der Hoeven 1840; Vallisneri 1706, and Thomas, as cited by Duméril (1865)).

Trauma – Review of regenerative powers (Plateretti 1777; Spallanzani 1768).

Multiple-tailed lizards (Alrovandi 1642; Pliny the Elder 1539; Porta 1589; Redi 1684; Saint-Hilaire 1838; Vallisneri 1733; Wiese 1812). List of all.

Congenital – Hemivertebrae in a serpent (Albrecht 1883).

Vertebral anomalies in Rana (Bourne 1884; Howes7 1886).

Serpent embryo with celosoma (absent sternum), in the herpetology laboratory collections of the Museum of Paris (Dareste 1877, p. 123).

Congenital – Correction to tome III, cites pleuromely in Rana (Mazza 1888) and axolotl (Sordelli 1882).

Polymelia in Rana (Sordelli 1876; Strobel 1876), but Fauvelle’s 1886 interpretation of hyperdactyly makes doubtful that the cause of polymely in the axolotl reported by Sordelli (1883) is congenital.

Trauma – Correction to tome IV, cites Otto (1816) as having observed multiple-tailed lizards.

Fauvelle’s 1886 interpretation of hyperdactyly makes doubtful that the cause of polymely in the axolotl reported by Sordelli (1883) is congenital.

Trauma – Bone fractures and callus formation in the pelycosaurs, Edaphosaurus (fibula) and Dimetrodon (radius and neural spine) (Permian); in the marine crocodile, Metriorhynchus and Teleosaurus (femur, ribs, and sacral vertebra); in mosasaurs, Mosasaurus (ribs); ichthyosaur, Eurhinosaurus longirostris (ribs); plesiosaurs, Thaumatosaurus victor, Plesiosaurus, Plioplatecarpus marshi (ribs) (Jurassic and Cretaceous); and in Pleistocene frog, Rana mugiens (pelvic), Rana mehelyi (ilium) and extant Rana temporaria (leg bone).

Rostral exostoses in Triassic phytosaurs, Phytosaurus, and Mystriosuchus were healed injuries and two gavials with shortened, bitten snouts.

Refers to literature on pathology of Proneusticosaurus, Mosasaurus, Phytosaurus, Metriorhynchus, Plioplatecarpus, Archelon, and Crocodylus citing specific papers. Two gavials with shortened, bitten snouts.

Mutilation of extremities in Alligator mississippiensis (Werner, Clarke, Reese).

Loss of three toes on hind leg and loss of front leg in Caiman niger (Schomburgk).

Cretaceous Archelon ischyros with shortened fibula and tibia (Moodie).

Infection – Osteomyelitis of Mosasaurus radius.

Gavials with shortened, bitten snouts, and abscess formation.

Vertebral – Spondylosis and necrosis? in caudal vertebrae of Jurassic sauropod dinosaurs, Diplodocus and Apatosaurus.

Other – Pachyostosis in Early Cretaceous snake, Pachyophis woodwardi Nopsca.

Fossil – Bone fractures and callus formation in the pelycosaurs, Edaphosaurus (fibula) and Dimetrodon (radius and neural spine) (Permian); in the marine crocodile, Metriorhynchus and Teleosaurus (femur, ribs, and sacral vertebra); in mosasaurs, Mosasaurus (ribs); ichthyosaur, Eurhinosaurus longirostris (ribs); plesiosaurs Thaumatosaurus victor, Plesiosaurus, Plioplatecarpus marshi (ribs) (Jurassic and Cretaceous); and in Pleistocene frog, Rana mugiens (pelvic), Rana mehelyi (ilium), and extant Rana temporaria (leg bone).

Rostral exostoses in Triassic phytosaurs, Phytosaurus, and Mystriosuchus were healed injuries and two gavials with shortened, bitten snouts.

Refers to literature on pathology of Proneusticosaurus, Mosasaurus, Phytosaurus, Metriorhynchus, Plioplatecarpus, Archelon and Crocodylus citing specific papers.

Cretaceous Archelon ischyros with shortened fibula and tibia (Moodie).

Osteomyelitis of Mosasaurus radius.

Spondylosis and necrosis? in caudal vertebrae of Jurassic sauropod dinosaurs, Diplodocus and Apatosaurus.

Pachyostosis in Early Cretaceous snake, Pachyophis woodwardi Nopsca.

Trauma – Tail regeneration is dependent upon vascular supply.

Congenital – Absence of the occipital condyle in the the ocephal, Viatkosuchus sumini.

Trauma – Crushed Erythrolamprus bizonus, Dipsas tenuissima KUMNH 31950 and Scaphiodontophis venustissimus missing part of tail.

Trauma – Ctenotus taeniolatus has no abdominal fat bodies, so stores majority of lipids in the tail. Survival at 5°C or 10°C was for 66 days without tail, contrasted with more than 90 days for intact individuals. Autotomy levels of 40–70% was somewhat age related, similar numbers to those observed in Hemiergis decresiensis (Robertson 1981). Frequencies were high in species with abdominal fat bodies (Lampropholis delicata and Leiolopisma platynota). Starved or cold geckos retain their tails for a longer period (Daniels 1981).

Increased mortality over winter in Lacerta vivipara with partially regenerated tails (Bauwens 1981).

Removal of tail in Hemiergis peronii results in smaller clutch size (Smyth 1974).

Congenital – Large orbits used to suggest it was a visual hunter.

Trauma – Tail fragility.

Environmental – Malformations in Vermont wetlands attributed to chemical toxicants in eastern gray tree frog Hyla versicolor (1.7%), Pseudacris crucifer (0.7%), Rana pipiens (1.9%), Rana catesbeiana (1.6%), Rana clamitans (2.7%), and Rana sylvatica (0.3%). Malformed elements (68/83) were more common than missing elements, but statistically correlated with pollution sources rather than parasitic infection.

Environmental – Rate of nontraumatic limb malformations in Vermont wetlands varied from 0% to 10. 2%. 3/235 eastern gray tree frog Hyla versicolor with malformed and 1 with missing limb; 3 each/895 Pseudacris crucifer; 2 missing and 3 malformed Rana catesbeiana; 9 missing and 28 malformed limbs in Rana clamitans; 10 missing, 28 malformed and 2 supernumerary in Rana pipiens; and 3/937 malformed relating proximity to agriculture and laws.

Trauma – Gongylus ocellatus with two tails, both in the sagittal plane (one dorsal to the other after the split).

Trauma – Reported a two-tailed lizard and referred to Italian popular writer (Ugo Ojetti) who had written a fictitious and humorous novel (entitled “Un amuleto,” in: “Le vie del peccato.” Castoldi – Milano, Italy) about the misadventures of someone who kept an amulet made of a multi-tailed lizard.

Congenital – Dicephalic Tropidonotus natrix L., collected by Themido in 1934.

Trauma – Bifid tails in Lacerta ledpida lepida Daudin, collected in Serra da Estrêla in 1886; Lacerta bocagei bocagei Seoane, collected in Coimbra in 1886; another Lacerta bocagei bocagei Seoane, collected in Coimbra as well (no date provided); Psammodromus hispanicus hispanicus Fitzinger, collected in Serra de Aire in 1887.

Environmental – Exposure of Rana clamitans to caged fish predators increased susceptibility to trematode infection. It reduced tadpole activity, increasing proximity to cercariae.

Congenital – Frequent abnormalities of body structure in Salamandra salamandra.

Congenital – Meristematic variation in the urostyle of Microhyla rubra in the form of a ball and socket joint in the urostyle.

Congenital – Dicephalic turtle.

Trauma – Lizard and serpent tails regrow.

Pathology – General review of pathology and terminology, including types of fractures and dysplasias, but no comments on reptiles or amphibians.

Congenital – Thirty one dicephalic grass snakes, adders, and two dozen other cases including cobra and cited dicephalism, derdromus two bodies and Siamese (Mitchill 1826) and derderomus snake (Redi 1684).

Environmental – Temperature-dependent egg incubation sex determination in American alligator Thornton CS. 1951. Beryllium inhibition of regeneration. III. Histological effects of beryllium on the amputated forelimbs of Ambystoma larvae.

Trauma – Midshaft amputation of humerus in Psammodromus hispanicus and Ambystoma opacum followed by erosion of that bone (histologically), with regeneration at forearm level inhibited by beryllium.

Trauma – Elasmosaur bitten by pliosaur.

Fossil – Elasmosaur bitten by pliosaur.

Congenital – Young lizard(s) with doubled posterior part of the body.

Environmental – Malformed amphibians are increasing, suggesting possible role for parasites, “xenobiotic chemicals” and UVB and proposes national reporting center.

Congenital – Sacral vertebra in anurans may be fused with immediate preceding vertebrae or with os coccygeum. Dilated diapophyses may be fused with presacral or sacral vertebrae.

Bufo cognatus with postzygapophyses on posterior border of neural arch, but without articular surfaces. Shortened os coccygeum was also noted.

Trauma – Chalcis (Chalcides flavescens) tail breaks off easily.

Trauma – Complete loss of limb or toe in a side-blotched lizard Uta stansburiana from gangrene and noted that Rand 1965 reported that 30–40% of Tropidurus torquatus had lost a toe.

Constriction at base of Uta stansburiana tail, divided toe, and four forked tails, one of which was triply so.

Blair 1960 reported that 15% and 24% of 1-year-old female and male Sceloporus olivaceus had tail breaks, compared with 35% and 50% of 3-year-olds. Cagle (1946) found regenerated tails in 30% of Hemidactylus garnoti adults, compared with 10% of “young.”

Vertebral – Six instances of abnormalities among 3,500 Uta stansburiana, including crocked tail related to “defect in vertebral formation.”

Trauma – Tail breaks in 22% of yearling desert spiny lizard Sceloporus magister.

Trauma – Higher rate of Sceloporus undulatus tail breakage in more southern populations.

Trauma – Healed fracture of right femur in pterosaur, Pterodactylus kochi, with considerable callus formation compared with comparable femur fractures and callus formation in extant Philippine sailing lizard, Hydrosaurus pustulatus, and the water agama, Physignathus cocincinus.

Fossil – Healed fracture of right femur in pterosaur, Pterodactylus kochi, with considerable callus.

Metabolic – Common iguana unable to support body weight on legs; condition responding to vitamin D supplementation.

Neoplasia – Myelogenous leukemia in bearded dragon Acanthodraco vitticeps with swollen right elbow and inability to move hind limbs with general right humerus lysis and soft tissue swelling of elbow and stifle. Cortices were thin.

Trauma – Double-tailed Platydactylus mauritanicus from regeneration after a fracture and cited double-tailed rolling lizard Gongylus ocellatus, French finger Acanthodactylus, western green lizard Lacerta viridis, Tuesday wall lizard Lacerta muralis, and Australian water guan Physignathus lesuerii.

Trauma – Bifid-tailed meadow lizard Chalcides sepsoides, three specimens of meadow lizard Lacerta serpa and Lacerta muralis.

Congenital – Absent hind limb and most of tail in one and malformed hind limbs in two other Rana tigrina.

Environmental – Cited description by Rugh (1954) and Yoshida et al. (1956) of monstrosities in localities “where nuclear fission experiments were carried out.”

Trauma – Mechanical injuries as explanation for hyperdactyly demonstrated by experiments with Triton cristatus.

Trauma – Varanus flavescens with double tail.

Trauma – Four Lacerta specimens with divided regenerated tail.

Trauma – Regeneration of two or three ends of the tail in lizards, Lacerta agilis and L. viridis; regeneration of double hind leg in Triton cristatus.

Congenital – Hyperdactyly in Triton cristatus.

Trauma – Regeneration of two or three ends of the tail in lizards, Lacerta agilis and L. viridis; regeneration of double hind leg in Triton cristatus.

Congenital – Anatomy of the normal and additional, abnormal pectoral girdle with two additional arms on the right side of Rana esculenta.

Trauma – Rana esculenta regeneration after fracture.

Trauma – Double tail in Triton vulgaris, Pelobates fuscus larva, axolotl, and Lacerta.

Congenital – Induction of forked legs in Bombinator igneus, Molge cristata, and M. taeniata; induction of extremities at their girdles in Bufo viridis, Pelobates fuscus, Molge cristata and M. taeniata; formation of additional vertebrae in frogs.

Trauma – Doubled tail in Lacerta.

Congenital – Dicephalic headed snake (schematic drawing).

Pelobates fuscus with bifurcation of hind leg and with two left hind legs.

Bufo mauritania with two left front legs (second leg with only one digit).

Rana esculenta with three left front legs.

Snakes with one-sided vertebra duplication.

Rana mugicus with malformation of vertebrae resulting in s-shaped arching of vertebral column.

Trauma – Double tail in Hatteria punctata.

Description of different kinds of tail duplication.

Congenital – Supernumerary hind legs in 12 specimens of Pelobates fuscus.

Congenital – Reason for anomalies is the small space in the egg membrane (compared with the amnion in mammals).

Congenital – Tail deformations (shortening, arching) in larvae of axolotl.

Congenital – Salamandra maculosa malformed embryos, including cyclops.

Congenital – Hungarian meadow viper Vipera ursinnii rakosiensis Siamese twins, with fused maxillary bones. One was male, the other a female, demonstrating that these embryos from separate eggs grew together during embryologic development.

Trauma – Limb regeneration in Necturus maculosus, Amphiuma means, Spelerpes ruber and guttolineata, Plethodon cinereus, Desmognathus ochrophaeus, Diemyctylus viridescens, and Manculus quadrigitatus.

Wiedersheim, (1875 I, p. 95) claimed no regeneration in Proteus and Siren lacertina, while Erber (1876 4, p. 34) claimed the regeneration occurred in the latter.

Environmental – Regeneration in Triton occurs from 48°F to 57°F (Higginbottom 1847).

Congenital – Derodymous Chrysemys picta, with depressed area between the united plastrons.

Congenital – Supernumerary limb in of Geocrinia victoriana.

Shell – Red-bellied short-necked turtles (Emydura australis subglobosa) with carapace necrosis; successful treatment with oxytetracycline and multivitamin medicine; in addition, local treatment with m-cresol fulson-acid-formaldehyde-polycondensate.

Congenital – Storeria dekayi with one head but two bodies.

Trauma – Rostral loss in Caiman crocodylus yacare from aggressive behavior.

Partial tail loss in Caiman latirostris.

Metabolic – Caiman crocodylus yacare spine curvature, softening of jaw and limb bones with deformations and fractures from metabolic bone disease produced by low calcium or excess phosphorus diets or ingestion of excess phthalic acid.

Vertebral – Enteritis in gila monster Heloderma horridum and H. suspectum is of significance as a potential source of spondyloarthropathy – BMR.

Trauma – Lacerta agilis (Zauneidechse) with short regenerated tail in addition to the normal tail.

Congenital – Duplication of anterior portion of tortoise, with shared leg.

Trauma – Double- or triple-tailed lizards as regeneration.

Trauma – Double-tailed lizard.

Toxicology – Carcinogens N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine and 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide produce absent radius and ulnar, subregeneration or superregeneration of carpals and digits and disorganization of skeletal elements in Japanese newt Triturus (Cynops) pyrrhogaster.

Toxicology – Direct application of 20-methylchloranthene and benzo(a)pyrene to limb buds produced subregeneration and superregeneration of carpal, digits, ulna, and radius absence and accessory limb formation in Japanese newt Cynops (Triturus) pyrrhogaster.

Trauma – Regeneration in a wild newt population revealed symmetrical reduplication, supernumerary digits, and deformed wrists, independent of the original deformity. They suggested traumatic origin of the anomalies.

Congenital – Dicephalic queensnake Regina septemvittata USNM 164350.

Congenital – Amphidichotomous (Siamese twin) Coluber constrictor USNM 162645.

Dicephalic California king snake Lampropeltis getula californiae (Shaw 1956, 1959), European grass snake Natrix (Tropidonotus) natrix (Ladeiro 1935), Amphiesma vibakari (Natrix vibakari) (Nakamura 1938), Dromicus chamissonis (Pflaumer 1945; Prado 1946), Elaphe climacophora (Nakamura 1938), Elaphe conspicillata (Nakamura 1938), Elaphe quatuorlineata sauromates (Alekperov 1954; Amrakh 1944; Iki 1946), Helicops carinicauda infrataeniata (Lema 1958), Heterodon platyrhinos platyrhinos (Meyer 1958), Lampropeltis getula californiae (Lüdicke 1964; Schmidt and Inger 1957; Shaw 1956, 1959), Lampropeltis triangulum (doliata) triangulum (Lüdicke 1964), Leimadophis poecilogyrus (Lüdicke 1964; Prado 1942, 1943, 1946), Leptodeira annulata ashmeadi (Belluomini and Lancini 1960), Liophis miliaris (miliaris semiaureus) (Lema 1957), Natrix (Tropidonotus) natrix (Ladeiro 1935; Lüdicke 1964; Martins d’Alte 1937; Themido 1944), Natrix rhombifer rhombifer (Oringderff 1969), Philodryas patagoniensis (schottii) (Prado 1946), Regina (Natrix) (Goldberg 1967; Neill 1941), Rhabdophis (Natrix) tigrina (Nakamura 1938), Tachymenis peruviana (Lüer 1944a, b; Prado 1946), Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Cohen 1937), Xenodon merremi by (Lema 1961), Pseudechis porphyriacus (Longman 1939), Agkistrodon halys blomhoffii (Nakamura 1938), Bothrops alternatus (Berst 1945; Prado 1946), Bothrops atrox (Daniel 1941, 1955; Dupouy 1958; Lüdicke 1964; Pflaumer 1945; Prado 1942, 1946), Bothrops jararaca (Pereira 1950), Bothrops jararacussu (Pereira 1944), Crotalus durissus terrificus (Klauber 1956; Lüdicke 1964; Vanzolini 1947), Crotalus horridus horridus (Anonymous 1967; Harris 1968), Vipera berus (Curry-Lindahl 1963; Lagerlund and Hanstrom 1961; Nubelin 1942; Steward 1961), Vipera russelli (Deraniyagala 1958), Natrix sipedon clarkii (List and Smith 1954), Storeria dekayi (Tripplehorn 1955), Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis (Martof 1954), Calliophis (Hemibungarus) japonicus (Nakamura 1938), Coluber constrictor constrictor (current paper), and Crotalus viridis viridis (Klauber 1956).

Congenital – Ectromelic supernumerary leg in Rana palustris, but with ankylosed inferior tibia and fibula articular expansion and replacement of astragalus and calcaneus by a single bone.

Accessory acetabulum.

Environmental – Axial (curvature) and craniofacial (reduced upper jaws) malformations in Xenopus from exposure to Missisquoi (Swanton, Vermont) water exposure, but no missing or supernumerary limbs.

Trauma – Broken tails were present in 6% of Uta stansburiana hatchlings (correlated with predator density and varied from 3% in 1971 to 10% in 1966), 30% of yearlings, and 51% of 2-year-olds.

Trauma – Starvation in Ambystoma did not affect tail growth.

Neoplasia – 1/49 spotted grass frogs Limnodynastes tasmaniensis with tumor, but also describes 4 with expansile tumors, 3 in posterior half of shaft; 1, in anterior. They were radiolucent with cortical thinning and scalloping with focal internal calcification. Histology confirmed osteochondroma in 3, but cortical disruption in one suggests probable chondrosarcoma.

Other – Oligo-Miocene Two Trees and Upper Site, Riversleigh Station, Northwest Queensland frog with ilial shaft distortion.

Fossil – Oligo-Miocene Two Trees and Upper Site, Riversleigh Station, Northwest Queensland frog with ilial shaft distortion.

Congenital – Siamese twin Phelsuma madagascariensis kochi (Koch’s day gecko) jointed at back of head.

Trauma – Tail detachment in geckos.

Trauma – Conspecific-derived tail loss in Gekko chameleon.

Congenital – Recessively transmitted polydactyly in Xenopus laevis.

Congenital – Recessively transmitted kinky tail tip in Xenopus laevis.

Vertebral – Tail-bending and malformation of vertebral column in Calotes and Phelsuma in captivity; Calotes emma (Thailand) and Lygodactylus (Kenya), in nature.

Metabolic – Review of physics and physiology of vitamin D metabolism.

Metabolic bone disease in green iguana Iguana iguana manifest as increased flexibility of long bones, apparent thickening of limbs (does not comment on bone thickening), fibrous osteodystrophy, cortical thinning, widening osteoid seams, and poor trabecular mineralization. Soft tissue mineralization was noted in iguana not illuminated by UV lamps.

For Savanna monitor lizard Varanus exanthematicus and Iguana iguana conversion of provitamin D₃ is temperature dependent.

Day geckos Phelsuma madagascariensis and Komodo dragons (Varanus komodoensis) require UV light for normal calcium metabolism and normal bone structure.

Vascular – Mud and musk (Kinosternidae) and soft-shelled (Trionychid) turtles have extrapulmonary gas exchange as do emydid turtles (Smith and Nickon 1961), including Chrysemys picta (Ultsch and Jackson 1982). Sternotherus and Trionyx have thin skins with favorable surface to volume ratios. The latter is related to size for Sternotherus and shape, in Trionyx. Both also have buccopharyngeal respiration, as does Chelydra serpentina.

Suggests that all freshwater turtles have effective extrapulmonary gas exchange.

Vascular – Extrapulmonary respiration in emydid turtle Chrysemys picta bellii.

Congenital – Recessive inheritance of scolosis in Rana pipiens, with rates ranging from 28% in Maryland to 5% in North Carolina and 40% in a “French pond.”

Congenital – Caudal scoliosis or lateral tail curvature in Rana pipiens.

Trauma – Tail loss in Cnemidophorus reduces speed.

Trauma – Toe regeneration in aromobatid frog Allobates femoralis.

Trauma – Larva of four-toed salamander Hemidactylum scutatum that experience tail injury have lower survival during the aquatic phase, from predation by the red spotted newt Notophthalmus viridescens. Partial compensation for tail loss occurs by elongation of vertebral centra anterior to the injury.

Vascular – Oxygen storage in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) was related to “large amounts of solid tissues and a great blood supply.”

Five-legged frog that also possessed a left hind limb with seven digits (same specimen published in 1715 and 1733, after Taruffi 1880).

Five-legged frog that also possessed a left hind limb with seven digits (same specimen published in 1706 and 1733, after Taruffi 1880).

Congenital – Five-legged with supernumerary leg next to the end of the coccyx, on the right side, and left hind foot had seven digits.

Congenital – Five-legged frog that also possessed a left hind limb with seven digits (pp. 306–307).

Trauma – Multi-tailed lizards by Pliny the Elder (1539), Porta (1589), Redi (1684), and Aldrovandi (1642) in page 448 of volume 3 (after Taruffi, 1886).

Trauma – Lacerta vivipara (Lacertus terrestris) with two and three tails.

Congenital – Rana esculenta with additional pair of hind legs on additional pelvis ventral to left leg. Additional phalange on front leg and on hind leg in other specimens.

Congenital – Rana esculenta with two supernumerary hind limbs which is attached to the pubic symphysis.

Rana with five digits in forelimb and Salamandra subviolacea with one accessory digit in a forelimb (after Taruffi 1885).

Congenital – Bombinator obstetricans fuscus with unique triangular-shaped transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae.

Trauma – Spontaneously healed tibial fracture in Litoria infrafrenata.

Trauma – Thirty of 10,000 Bubo bubo were missing part of legs – caused by mowing.

Trauma – Thirty of 10,000 Bubo bubo were missing part of legs – caused by mowing.

Congenital – Unpaired, median bone between parietals and frontals in the dicynodont therapsid (mammal-like reptiles), Lystrosaurus.

Fossil – Unpaired, median bone between parietals and frontals in the dicynodont therapsid (mammal-like reptiles), Lystrosaurus.

Congenital – Dicephalic (two) European whip snakes Coluber viridiflavus viridiflavus Lacépède 1789 in the collections of the provincial museum of Natural History of Livorno number 2479, one grass snake Natrix natrix lanzai Kramer 1971 in the collections of the zoology museum “La Specola” number 23780 and Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia Laurenti (1768) captured in 1978 in Bardere Ier (Somalia) also in the collections of the zoology museum “La Specola.”

Spectacled salamander Salamandrina terdigitata Lacépède 1788 with polydactyly and syndactyly in the hind limb and swelling of both forearms.

Congenital – Derodymous Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni robertmertensi Wermuth (1952)) collected near Cavriglia Arezzo, Italy, catalog number 7707 M.F., also number 762 in the Italian Central Vertebrate Collection established by E.H. Giglioli. Marginals are larger than those of normal specimens of like age with variation in count and separation between scutes.

Trauma – Effects of autotomy relate to habit/habitat (terrestrial or fossorial), ease of tail shedding, frequency of intraspecific aggression and interspecific predation, character of predator, age and sex of sample, and species longevity, citing Bellairs and Bryant (1985).

Autotomy recognized in 23% of Tropidurus itambere (as tree branch sit and wait foragers) and 82% of Mabuya frenata (as active foragers).

Frequency (% of #) of tail regeneration:

Congenital – Supernumerary limbs (De Superville 1740) in 29 of 86 Hyla regilla from Montana (Hebard and Brunson 1963); similar number from New Jersey (Anonymous 1964).

Polymelous frogs, toads, and rarely salamanders: Bateson (1894), Duméril (1865), Ercolani (1881), Gemmill (1906), Ghorab (1959), Kingsly (1883), Mahendra (1936), Pol (1958), Przibram (1921), Rostand (1951), Voitkevich (1959); Adler (1958), anonymous (1944, 1945, 1962), Banta (1966), Bonnet and Rey (1935), Brandt (1932, 1933, 1934, 1935), Canella (1935), Chalaux (1952), Charles (1944), Cooper (1958), Cunningham (1955), Freytag (1941, 1952), Gaggero (1960), Heatwole and Suarez-Lazu (1965), Hobson (1958), Hvass (1943), Kahn (1926), Mertens (1925), Moncharmant (1949), Pearson (1960), Perri (1951, 1952), Peterka (1941), Rahmann et al. (1962), Rostand (1956), Ruth (1961), Rylkova (1924), Samarasinghe (1951), Schussler (1925), Storer (1925, p. 58), Witschi and Chang (1954), and Wu and Liu (1941).

Polymely in 20 of 60 leptodactylids from Ecuador (Copping, cited by Rostand 1958); 25 of 250 Rana catesbeiana from Ohio (Anonymous 1954; Hauver 1958), 350 individuals from Mississippi (Volpe 1967), and 600 polymelous Rana esculenta ridibunda from Russia (Voitkevich 1948, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1963, 1965).

Polydactyly Ambystoma tigrina up to 90% from Colorado (Bishop 1947, 1949; Bishop and Hamilton 1947; Rosine 1955), 1/48 Chioglossa lusitanica from Portugal, 1/48 (Dubois and Thireau 1972) Rana e. esculenta from France up to 85% (Rostand 1949, 1952, 1958, 1959, 1962; Rostand and Darre 1969) and Netherlands (Voitkevich 1961), Rana esculenta from France (Dubois and Thireau 1972), 3/23 Rana iberica from Portugal (Dubois and Thireau 1972), 3/40 Rana temporaria (Rostand and Fischer 1959), 5/22 Salamandra salamandra from France (Joly 1966), 4/47 Triturus cristatus from France (Dubois and Thireau 1972), 2/43 Triturus helveticus from France 2/43 (Dubois and Thireau 1972), and probably in Switzerland and Germany (Rostand et al. 1967).

Congenital – Derodymous Crotalus durissus terrificus in the collections of the Department of Histology and Embryology of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of São Paulo, Brazil, with review of literature

Neoplasia – Review of tumors in reptiles:

Multiple enchondromas in Varanus dracaena

Chondroosteofibroma in Cyclura cornuta

Osteosarcoma in Varanus sp. and Rhamphiophis rostratus

Osteochondroma in Naja melanoleuca and Varanus bengalensis

Osteogenic sarcoma in Burmese python Python molurus bivittatus and Python reticulatus

Ossifying fibroma in Iguana iguana

Chondrosarcoma of second degree of anaplasia in Iguana iguana

Trauma – Permian MCZ 1262 Araeoscelis has a regenerated tail manifest as a tubular fragment of bone with irregular transverse ridges.

Fossil – Permian MCZ 1262 Araeoscelis has a regenerated tail manifest as a tubular fragment of bone with irregular transverse ridges.

Congenital – Structural modification with alternating height vertebral neural spines for efficient vertebral column dorsiflexion and lateral flexion in Captorhinus.

Fossil – Structural modification with alternating height vertebral neural spines for efficient vertebral column dorsiflexion and lateral flexion in Captorhinus.

Trauma – Stachleckeria GPIT/RE/8001 from Middle Triassic of Brazil with possible scapula tendon avulsion.

Infection – Stachleckeria GPIT/RE/8001 from Middle Triassic of Brazil with possible infectious arthritis of knee.

Dermal – Geikia locusticeps GPIT K114 lesion, holotype of Pelanomodon tuberosus, from Upper Permian of Tanzania with concave circular pit with raised rim on maxilla, probably caused by inclusion/epidermal cyst.

Pathology – Stachleckeria GPIT/RE/8001, from Middle Triassic of Brazil with lesion of distal femur which appears to be a large and multiple small pressure erosions, with aneurysm or hydatid cysts to be considered.

Fossil – Stachleckeria GPIT/RE/8001 from Middle Triassic of Brazil with possible scapula tendon avulsion.

Stachleckeria GPIT/RE/8001 from Middle Triassic of Brazil with possible infectious arthritis of knee.

Geikia locusticeps GPIT K114 lesion, holotype of Pelanomodon tuberosus, from Upper Permian of Tanzania with concave circular pit with raised rim on maxilla, probably caused by inclusion/epidermal cyst.

Stachleckeria GPIT/RE/8001 from Middle Triassic of Brazil with lesion of distal femur which appears to be a large and multiple small pressure erosions, with aneurysm or hydatid cysts to be considered.

Pathology – Upper Triassic Jachaleria candelariensis, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – Instituto de Geociências UFRGS-PVo151T, lacking acromial process with deep semilunar depression with oval shaped excavation.

Fossil – Upper Triassic Jachaleria candelariensis, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul – Instituto de Geociências UFRGS-PVo151T, lacking acromial process with deep semilunar depression with oval shaped excavation.

Trauma – Damaged hind limbs in common toad Bufo bufo related to pollution of breeding pond or predation by predatory leeches Erpobdella octoculata.

Trauma – Turtle shell injury results from falling, being dropped, or stepped on.

States that turtles are avid climbers.

Congenital – Dicephalic Liophis almadensis and Testudo ibera.

Congenital – Miocene Discoglossus with gradations of fusion of postsacral vertebrae with urostyle. One Maroccan fossil with fusion through centra and a second that also had neural arch fused.

Fossil – Miocene Discoglossus with gradations of fusion of postsacral vertebrae with urostyle. One Maroccan fossil with fusion through centra and a second that also had neural arch fused.

Trauma – Deformations in tail of Phelsuma laticauda laticauda and P. madagascariensis grandis, perceived as genetic because occurring in related lineages?

Congenital – Kinked tail in Xenopus laevis.

Environmental – Material was collected in 1980–1981 in large city area and included all amphibians living there. Part of the material was from years 1977, 1978, 1982, and 1983. Examined were moorfrog Rana arvalis – 194 adults and 1,784 juvenile offsprings, lake frog Rana ridibunda – 9 adults and 518 juvenile offsprings, common frog Rana temporaria – 100 adults and 495 juvenile offsprings, Siberian salamander Salamandrella keyserlingii – 266 adults and 313 juvenile offsprings, and common newt Triturus vulgaris – 275 adults and 28 juvenile offsprings.

Area types

Types of anomalies