Congenital – Review of anatomical (monstrous) anomalies (in particular pygomely) and report of pygomelia in a Rana esculenta with three legs purchased in the market in Pavia (Italy). The extra hind limb was in between the normal limbs (its femur connected to the lower tuberosity found posterior to the left ilium) and was comprised of the fusion of two feet as evidenced by the presence of nine toes. Internally, despite the duplication of toes and having three tarsal complex bones, it had only one tibia and femur. The second new case had a subtle stump representing an atrophied third hind limb that projected ventrally from the pubic symphysis (lacking any intermediary bones).

Environmental – Polymely in the toad Bufo ictericus ictericus. Cause: an unknown (eventually even industrial pollution) stimulus applied below the mid region of somatopleura at a proper embryonic stage.

Congenital – Rana fusca with an additional posterior extremity.

Congenital – Kyphosis and hump in Chrysemys picta.

Shell disease – Kyphosis and hump in Chrysemys picta.

Toxicology – “Curvature of body axis” caused by pesticides fenitronthion, BHC, and carbofuran in frog Microhyla ornata.

Toxicology – Malathion at 5–10 ppm produced microcephaly in Microhyla ornata.

Congenital – 70 of 523 Bombina variegate had vertebral column abnormalities, including variation in number and structure: 1% with reduced and 2% with increased number of vertebrae; 5% asymmetrical sacrum 4, 5% with asymmetrical sacral duplication, 6% with urostyle abnormalities, 7% with reduction, and 1% with augmentation of number of presacral vertebrae, and 1% with hemivertebrae.

Additionally, abnormalities noted by Madej (1965) in 10% of 555 Bombina bombina reduced number of vertebrae in 2%; increased in 1%; asymmetrical sacra in 5%, and abnormal urostyle in 5%, 11% of 813 Bombina variegata (1% of decrease, 2% of increase, 5% of sacral asymmetry, and 6% of urostyle abnormality), by Adolphi (1895) in 23% of 65 Pelobates fuscus (20% vertebral increase, 11% asymmetrical sacra), (1898) in 10% of 200 Bufo cinereus (1% decreased vertebrae), (1893) in 6% of 212 Bufo variabilis, and (1895) in 3% of 117 Rana esculenta. The latter contrasted with 7% of 205 reported by Zaharesco (1935), who noted 0.5% decreased and 2% increased vertebrae and 1% asymmetrical sacra.

Congenital – Dicephalic copperhead Austrelaps superbus, fer-de-lance Bothrops atrox, Elaphe rufodorsata, common water snake or Schneider’s water snake Enhydris enhydris, rainbow boa Epicrates cenchria maurus, Bahama boa Epicrates striatus, Russell’s sand boa or red earth boa Eryx conicus, Eutaenia macrostemma, common king snake Lampropeltis getula, Leimadophis poecilogyrus, common Indian wolf snake Lycodon aulicus, Cape common wolf snake Lycophidion capense, viperine snake Natrix maura, diamondback water snake Natrix rhombifera, Queen water snake Natrix septemvittata, common water snake or northern water snake Natrix sipedon, gulf salt marsh snake Natrix sipedon clarkia, water snake Nerodia fasciata, rough-scaled green snake Opheodrys aestivus, San Diego gopher snake Pituophis melanoleucus annectens, Pacific gopher snake Pituophis melanoleucus catenifer, Great Basin gopher snake Pituophis melanoleucus deserticola, Dark Indian python Python molurus bivittatus, Rhabdophis tigrinus, western aquatic garter snake Thamnophis couchii, elegant garter snake or mountain garter snake Thamnophis elegans, wandering garter snake Thamnophis elegans vagrans, black-tailed boa Tropidophis melanurus.

Turkish gecko Hemidactylus turcicus, yellow-headed gecko Gonatodes albogularis, Mabuya striata striata, Tiliqua scincoides (Willis 1932), Trachydosaurus rugosus (Matz 1989).

Derodymus Lacerta saxicola (Darevsky 1960, 1961), Lacerta vivipara, asp viper, Trachydosaurus rugosus (Matz 1989).

Dicephalic Mabuya striata striata (Broadley 1977) and Varanus varius with partial body duplication.

Cephaloderopagus sand lizard Lacerta agilis (Pleticha 1968; Bellairs 1965), Mabuya striata punctatissima and Vipera aspis.

Siamese Trachydosaurus rugosus (Matz 1989).

Axial duplication in Anguis fragilis (Cantoni 1921; Riches 1955; Reichenbach-Klinke and Elkan 1965).

Opisthodichotomous Phelsuma madagascariensis, Podarcis muralis, Posterior duplication in Egernia striolata (Matz 1989).

Trauma – bifid tail in Stenocercus ornatissimus and Xenodon severus and multiple tail bifurcations in giant green lizard Lacerta trilineata.

Congenital – Dicephalic yellow-headed gecko Gonatodes albogularis albogularis, Hemidactylus turcicus, Lacerta vivipara, Mabuya striata striata, and apparently Tiliqua scincoides (Willis 1932) and Trachydosaurus rugosus (Matz 1989).

Derodymus Trachydosaurus rugosus (Matz 1989).

Cephaloderopagus Lacerta agilis (Pleticha 1968; Bellairs 1965), Mabuya striata punctatissima, Mabuya striata striata.

Dicephalic Lacerta saxicola with axial bifurcation (Darevsky 1960, 1961), Mabuya striata striata with duplication of head, forelimbs, and anterior half of body (Broadley 1977) and Varanus varius with two forelegs.

Axial duplication (Matz 1989) in Anguis fragilis – axial duplication (Cantoni 1921; Riches 1955; Reichenbach-Klinke and Elkan 1965).

Posterior duplication in Egernia striolata (Matz 1989)

Opisthodichotomous Phelsuma madagascariensis and Podarcis muralis.

Siamese twin Trachydosaurus rugosus (Matz 1989).

Trauma – Bifid tail in Stenocercus ornatissimus and multiple tail bifurcations in Lacerta trilineata.

Environmental – Aprasia collected in warm weather had more vertebrae than those collected in cold (Parker 1956).

Number of caudal, but not trunk, vertebrae correlated with temperature in geckos Ptyodactylus, Hemidactylus, Tropiocolotes, Cearamodactylus, and Stenodactylus (Werner 1964).

More caudal vertebrae were noted in Triturus vulgaris raised above and below intermediate temperatures, opposite of findings for Ambystoma mexicanum (Orska and Imiolek 1962).

Positive correlation with temperature in Ambystoma gracile (Lindsey 1966).

Actually Tiedemann 1930.

Congenital – Six-legged bullfrog Rana catesbeiana with duplicate pelvic girdle from Delaware-Raritan Canal of New Jersey.

Congenital – Supernumerary legs in Rana catesbeiana.

Congenital – Prairie rattlesnake Crotalus viridis viridis with umbilical area fusion, cleft palate (passing through maxillary bone in floor of nose), with partially developed parietal and overdeveloped frontals.

Congenital – Absent distal portion of limbs in Ameiva undulata.

Congenital – Dicephalic Bothrops jararacussú, Espírito Santo, Brazil.

Congenital – Dicephalic Bothrops jararaca in the collection of the Instituto Pinheiros (specimen number 5) in the city of Vitória, state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. Necks were juxtaposed and formed a singular, triangular overall shape. They were joined laterally until slightly before the eyes, at which point the heads separated.

Toxicology – Lead-induced stunted tail and bifid spine in Bufo arenarum.

Vertebral – Thin (∼1.5 cm), 11.5 cm diameter disk structure MNCN 58622 attributed to a Jurassic marine reptile found in Sierra de Albarracín, Spain. They interpreted it as an intervertebral disk. If so, it is an important observation, as current thinking suggests that marine reptiles have joint spaces, not disk spaces.

Congenital – Dicephalic Bothrops asper.

Congenital – Tails are shed more easily in high predation continental and “insular” populations.

Autotomy rates are given in ratio of present to absent: Podarcis bocagei (24/4), Lacerta monticola (14/2), Psammodromus algirus (4/1), Podarcis milensis (8/1), Podarcis hispanica (28/0), Podarcis lilfordi (45/20), Podarcis sicula (12/5), Podarcis raffonei (7/0), Podarcis pityusensis (10/0), but there is a discrepancy with the number listed in the methods section of animals examined: 15, 6, 24, 10, 31, 81, 19, 13, and 10, respectively.

Congenital – Cites Cunningham (1937) gleaning of 150 references and lists 117 additional references. 22% of reports of somatodichotomy were in Colubridae, 18% in Naticidae, and 21% in Crotalidae. Earliest report was by Nakamura (1938) who recognized teratophagus presenting as craniophagus (fusion of cranium), cephaloderophagus (fusion of cranium and anterior trunk), and anakatamesodidymus (separation at both ends). He referred to tyeratodymus as rhinodymus (double nosed), opodymus (two headed) and derodymus (bifurcated head and neck), craniodichotomy (head only), prodichotomy (head and anterior body), proarchodichotomy (up until anus), opisthodichotomy (head and tail duplicated), urodichotomy (only tail duplicated) and amphidichotomy (both anterior and posterior, rarely middle duplicated), and holodichotomy (total duplication).

Congenital – Hyla pulchella pulchella in the collections of the Museum of La Plata, Argentina (MLP A 712 and MLP A 714) with dilated diapophysis (sacral style) over the left margin of the last pre-sacral vertebra, while the sacral vertebra possessed the normal diapophysis in its right side. On the opposing side, it had a posteriorly facing, thin, transverse apophysis. A thin, anteroposteriorly expanded cartilage was observed in its end.

Pseudis paradoxa platensis (MLP. A 704 with two supernumerary hind limbs inserted ventrally into the pelvic girdle.

Congenital – Dicephalic California king snake, named Duplex at San Diego Zoo.

Congenital – Dicephalic yellowbelly slider turtle.

Congenital – Hemivertebrae-related scoliosis in urodeles (Witzmann 2007).

Infection – 1/202 surviving tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum with multiple skin nodules developed scoliosis secondary to encysted metacercarial stages of digenean trematodes Clinostomum sp. (order Strigeidida, family Clinostgomatidae). Soft tissue swelling dislodged carpus, radius, and ulna with pressure erosions and new bone formation.

Digenean trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae disrupts normal limb bud cell growth (Stopper et al. 2002), as have microsporidia (Gamble et al. 2006).

Clinostomum attenuatum or C. complanatum have been reported in green frogs Rana clamitans, bullfrogs Rana catesbeiana, cane toads Bufo marinus, red-spotted newts Notophthalmus viridescens, cave salamanders Eurycea lucifuga, tiger salamanders Ambystoma tigrinum, but no musculoskeletal deformities were reported.

Trematode induces scoliosis in San Marcos salamanders Eurycea nana (Gamble et al. 2006).

Toxicology – Toxin-induced scoliosis (Iwamuro et al. 2003)

Environmental – Pesticides and habitat modification are suggested as determinants of parasite levels (Belden and Kiesecker 2005; Gray et al. 2007; Kiesecker 2002; King et al. 2007, 2008; Koprivnikar et al. 2007).

Congenital – Although an experimental paper, it contains a very short mention of the literature on incidence of supernumerary limbs in Anurans in nature. Perri’s experiments concentrated on Hyla arborea and Discoglossus pictus.

Congenital – Misshapen cervical centrum of a plesiosaur from Oxford Clay (Upper Jurassic) BMNH 48001, possibly Cimoliosaurus plicatus represents segmentation defect with differential (laterality) penetration.

Fossil – Misshapen cervical centrum of a plesiosaur from Oxford Clay (Upper Jurassic) BMNH 48001), possibly Cimoliosaurus plicatus represents segmentation defect with differential (laterality) penetration.

Congenital – Identical, not Siamese Chinese rat snake Elaphe bimaculata twins.

Congenital – Six-legged bullfrog with humeri emerging perpendicularly from the thorax.

Congenital – Scale asymmetry and variation in Dipsas brevifacies, Dipsas gaigeae, Dipsas viguieri, Dipsas pavonina, Dipsas vermiculata, Dipsas indica indica, Dipsas indica bucephala, Dipsas indica cisticeps, Dipsas neivai, Dipsas elegans, Dipsas ellipsifera, Dipsas oreas, Dipsas boettgeri, Dipsas latifasciata,Dipsas latifrontalis, Dipsas peruana, Diposas pratti, Dipsas sanctijoannis, Dipsas schunkei, Dipsas albifrons, Dipsas incerta, Dipsas variegata variegata, Dipsas variegata nicholsi, Diposas variegata trinitatis, Sibynomorphus mikani mikani, Sibynomorphus mikani neuwiedi, Sibynomorphus turgidus, Sibynomorphus vagrans, Sibynomorphus ventrimaculatus, Sibon annulata, Sibon anthracops, Sibon dimidiate dimidiate, Sibon dimidiate grandoculis, Sibon sanniola, Sibon argus, Sibon carri, Sibon dunni, Sibon nebulata.

Congenital – Spinal curvature in coeur d’alene salamander (Plethodon idahoensis).

Trauma – Review of predation by tadpoles on other amphibians, but no distinguishing comments on morbidity versus mortality.

Congenital – Agklistrodon piscivorus (Eastern Cottonmouth) with double fracture in vertebra 19 and 20.

Trauma – Forked-tail in a rhinoceros iguana Cyclura cornuta.

Congenital – Dicephalic Dromicus chamissonis (Wiegman) captured in Niebla beach in Valdivia, Chile.

Trauma – Triton cristatus limb regeneration requires more than stump.

Trauma – Triton cristatus limb regeneration. Although Siren pisciformis was in the title, it was not mentioned in the text.

Trauma – Rudimentary limb after amputation in aquatic salamander.

Congenital – Experimental research on polydactyly in Triton

Trauma – Supernumerary tails in lizards. In the latter section, he observed two different vertebral canals formed in cartilaginous cases inside the supernumerary tail, a situation to his knowledge unique. He compared the supernumerary tail of his lizard to that reported in an Axolotl by Sordelli (1882).

Trauma – More tail loss in southern than northern Cnemidophorus, Uta, Phrynosoma and female Callisaurus.

Trauma – incidence of tails broken is less than 1% in the knob-tailed Nephrurus laevissimus, contrasted with 72.7% in D. elderi.

Suggested that arboreal lizards have more broken tails than terrestrial (Werner 1968).

Environmental – Radiation produced reduced limb development in Anguis fragilis.

Toxicology – Retinoic acid depresses regeneration of Ambystoma mexicanum tails.

Environmental – 25% of Rana temporaria develop double mouth if develop in 8% cane sugar solution.

Congenital – Congenital pathologies, but not osseous.

Congenital – Dicephalic Texas river cooter Chrysemys concinna texana.

Trauma – Predation on cascade frog Rana cascadae by giant water bug Lethocerus sp.

Congenital – Schistomely – divided hand.

Trauma – General comments, citing Pline (1539), Volante (1923), Vialleton (1911) on fibrocartilaginous tail regeneration and the three-tailed lizard discussion by Taruffi (1886).

Bifid tail in Lacerta ocellata and in Lacerta muralis (de Kerville (1909) in Rhacodactylus trachyrhyncus de Kerville (1909)

Trauma – Brief reference to 1929 publication, mentioning again Lacerta ocellata Daud. and Lacerta muralis Laur. with bifid tails and discussed various traditions, perceptions, and legends about lizards and snakes (including two-tailed lizards) of the Portuguese folk.

Neoplasia – Chondromyxoma in Rana fusca.

Congenital – Related dwarf races of Crocodylus niloticus in Aswa/Moroto and Greek rivers in Eastern Uganda to deficiency of permanent water.

Infection – Mycobacterium marinum-infected tibiofibular fracture in African bullfrog Pyxicephalus adspersus

Trauma – Salamander limbs are regenerated with more or less digits than normal more commonly when a limb is severed repeatedly. Almost six digits (where norm is four) occurred the fourth time the limb had been regenerated.

Congenital – Noted rarity of dicephalic and cited St. Hilaire III:185, 193 report.

Congenital – Opodymus Lacerta agilis.

This appears to be a French translation of Pliny the Elder 1539.

Plinii Secundi C. 1539. Historiae Naturalis. [Natural History]. Lipsiae: Caroli Tauchitii; 500 pp. [Latin]

Trauma – Bipartite and tripartite reptile tails – in books 10 and 11

Pseudopathology – Mistook two mating snakes as dicephalic – in book 10. Mistook amphisbaena as having heads on either end – in book 8.

Infection – Lytic changes in caudal vertebrae of rhinoceros iguana Cyclura cornuta from infection. Lytic changes in caudal vertebrae of common iguana Iguana iguana from infection.

Congenital – 15.4% of Opheodrys aestivus had ventral scute anomalies. 18/28 had a half ventral inserted between the two normal ventral ends and nine had divided ventral. One of the first group had corresponding vertebral and rib duplication.

Congenital – Kyphosis in Chrysemys scripta yaquia, Caretta caretta, Chelydra serpentina, Kinosternum subrubrum hippocrepis, Sternotheres odoratus, Chrysemys picta, Chrysemys scripta, Pseudomys (Chrysemys) floridana, Clemmy guttata, Deirochelys reticularia, Mallemys centrata, Graptemys (Malaclemys) pseudogeographica, Melanochelys trijuga, Terropene carolina, Terropene ornata, Testudo hermanni, Amyda (Trionyx) ferox, muticus, sinensis, spinifera, triunguis, and Trionyx steindachnderi.

Congenital – Rana esculenta with additional anterior legs and scapula (after Alessandri 1854; Ercolani 1882; Johnson 1901; Lunel 1863; Mazza 1885; Tornier 1898) and 8–7 fingers (Cavanna 1879). Bufo viridis (Tornier 1898), Hyla aurea (O’Donoghue 1910), Rana temporaria (O’Donoghue 1910), Rana (Johnson 1901), Triton taeniatus (Barfurth 1899) with additional rudimentary scapula and extremity and Bufo columbiensis (Washburn 1899)with additional rudimentary scapula and extremity with more fingers, axolotl with rudimentary additional anterior extremity and hyperdactyly (Sordelli 1882; Duméril 1867; Barfurth 1894).

Supernumerary hind legs in Pelobates fuscus (Tornier 1901), Rana esculenta (Deen 1838; Lunel 1868; Balsamo-Crivelli 1865), Rana clumata (Duméril 1867), Rana halecina (Kingsly 1882; Johnson 1901), Rana palustris (Tuckermans 1885), Rana temporaria (Duméril 1865), Rana fusca (Bender 1906; Woodland 1885), Rana viridis (Duméril 1867), Ambystoma punctatum (with hypophalangy: Winslow 1904), Alytes abstetricans (Cisternas 1865), Triton cristatus (Camerano 1882), and Triton niger (Siebold 1828).

Congenital – Review of hypermely and hyperdactyly in amphibians: Hypermely more frequent in amphibians than hyperdactyly, in hind legs (Duméril 1865), in front legs (Tornier 1898, 1901). Duméril (1867) reported that A. V. Humboldt found only one specimen of Rana viridis with hypermely within 3,000–4,000 specimens used as food in the zoo in Paris.

Scapula – Hypoplasy of Rana esculenta scapula (lack of episcapula), large additional scapulae, two accessory fused coracoids on the left side (Alerssandri 1854; Ercolani 1882), another with two accessory fused scapulae, fused episcapulae, additional coracoid on the left side (Ercolani and Lunel 1868), a third with two accessory rudimentary scapulae and an additional coracoid on the right side (Ercolani 1882), a fourth with accessory rudimentary scapula, two additional coracoids and a fused accessory precoracoid on right side (Tornier 1898; Johnson 1901), and a fifth with accessory rudimentary scapula, a thick accessory humerus and 3/2 similar lower arm bones (Cavanna 1879; Washburn 1899). Accessory scapula and two additional coracoids on left side in Rana esamelica (Mazza 1888) (Bufo viridis (Tornier 1901) and Hyla aurea (O’Donoghue 1910)) with accessory rudimentary scapulae, additional anterior extremity. Triton taeniatus with additional articulation in shoulder girdle (Barfurth 18990. Rana palmipes with paired anterior short additional extremity and additional bone in shoulder girdle (Johnson 1901).

Pelvis – Additional complete pelvic in Rana temporaria and Pelobates fuscus (Reichenow 1908; Tornier 1901), Rana viridis (Duméril 1867) and Rana halecina (Johnson 1901), additional hypoplastic in Rana esculenta (Van Deen 1838; Lunel 1868), additional additional half pelvis, tarsus with three centralia and hypophalangy (Winslow 1914). Rana clunata with additional pair of articulation fossae (acetabulum) in pelvis (Duméril 1865), Rana halecina with additional acetabulum ventral in symphysis of pelvis with additional “normal” leg (Kingsley 1882), Rana temporaria with small acetabulum dorsal of acetabulum and additional hind leg with foot with five elongated toes (Duméril 1865), Rana fusca with small acetabulum dorsal of acetabulum and additional right hind leg with two tarsalia, three metatarsalia, and three toes (middle one with four phalanges, both lateral ones with three phalanges (Bender 1906)), Bufo vulgaris with small acetabulum dorsal of acetabulum and additional right hind leg with duplicated foot with four and three toes, respectively (Sutton 1889).

Supernumerary – Supernumerary limbs in toad (Thomas 1861), frog (Balsamo-Crivelli 1865; Guettard 1783; Otto 1816). Frog with extra extremity (D’Alton 1853), fifth leg on right shoulder (De Superville 1744), water frog with six feet (Van Deen 1838).

Axolotl with five toes on front leg (Otto 1841), additional anterior extremity with three or five toes (Gervais 1864; Bassi 1874; Sutton 1889), partial subcutaneous additional humerus, lower arm free (Bergendal 1889; Eigenmann and Cox 1901).

Axolotl with supernumerary forelimb (Barfurth 1894; Sordelli 1882), another with additional rudimentary hand and lower arm and hyperdactyly (Duméril 1867).

Rana fusca with additional rudimentary hind leg attached to body with two lower legs and two feet (Woodland 1908).

Rana palustris additional rudimentary hind leg attached to body with two toes (Tuckerman 1885).

Triton cristatus with division of femur articulating with two lower legs (Camerano 1882).

Triton niger with additional two-toed foot on knee of hind leg (Siebold 1828).

Digit – hyperdactylous frog (Brown-Séquard 1849; Van der Hoeven 1840) and salamander (Van der Hoeven 1840).

Triton with additional toes on front leg (Rayon 1849), Salamandra cristata with seven toes on left front leg and six toes on right hind leg (Geoffroy Saint Hilaire 1832), Bufo columbiensis with seven or eight toes on the front leg (Cavanna 1879; Washburn 1899).

Congenital – Occasional apodic Rana temporaria tadpoles, thought to be hereditary.

Congenital – Occasional apodic Rana temporaria tadpoles, thought to be hereditary.

Congenital – Dicephalic salamanders.

Trauma – Tail breakage reduces running speed in Dipsosaurus dorsalis. Fully regenerated tails are shorter and thicker and allow faster running.

Trauma – Running speed of desert iguana Dipsosaurus dorsalis is reduced by 14% with tail loss. Tail loss with regeneration is rare in jubeniles, but observed in 45% of adult males and 34% of adult females in museum collections.

Congenital – Ectomelia in Bufo bufo.

Congenital – Ectomelia as dominant mutation in Bufo bufo.

Dental – Tooth anomalies “frequently occur” in Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus. Two fully erupted teeth in a single socket (possibly because old root never resorbed). Crown breaks off because of resorption weakening neck of old tooth, with root still imbedded in socket and only partial eruption of the new tooth or part of old root fully enclosed within root of new tooth.

Dental – Variation in which is longest tooth in Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus is 9th or 10th upper and 2nd, 4th, 10th, or 11th in mandible.

Congenital – Dicephalic bull snake Pituophis sayi, citing dicephalic snakes reported by Aldrovandi 1640, Johnson 1901, Redi 1684, Lacépède 1789, Mitchell 1826, Hyde 1925, Do Amaral 1926, noting Hyde (1925) reported a dicephalic milk snake Lampropeltis triangulum, and Redi (1684), a derodymus bull snake Pituophis sayi.

Combined cephalad and caudal bifurcation was reported by Johnson in 1901, Wyman in 1862, and Mitchell in 1826. Redi 1684 (Osserv-int. Agli, anim, vienti, etc., p. 2, tav. 1, 1778) described a bull snake with duplicate spinal cord to middle of back.

Fused black snake Bascanium constrictor (Johnson 1901) and copperhead (Hyde 1925) heads.

Johnson 1901 described black snake Bascanium constrictor and Hyde 1925, in a copperhead, fused heads, and the latter, a dicephalic milk snake Lampropeltis triangulum.

Shell disease – Illustrated Kinosternon subrubrum steindachneri with two lesions on its plastron, although the text makes no mention of the lesions.

Infection – Mouth rot is limited to captive snakes, producing canker mouth and osteomyelitis.

Congenital – Dicephalic Kinosternon flavescens.

Congenital – Dicephalic viper.

Suggested that the legend of the Hydra Lernaea was born from the fact that similar monsters were seen among serpents.

Trauma – Lizards with 2–3 tails, noting many lizards with double or triple tails.

Vertebral – Basal vertebra of supernumerary tail is fused with ventrolateral edge of normal vertebral tail of red-spotted newt Triturus viridescens, which they called cauda bifida.

Congenital – Trunk vertebra diapophyses extend beyond lateral zygapophysis margins and presence of parapophysis alar processes as synapomorphies in some individuals of all species of Eurycea and in Typhlomolge tridentifera. Elongate diapophyses and well-developed alar processes in at least some larger Edwards Plateau hemidactyliines.

Absent normal fusion of fourth and fifth tarsal in a Typhlomolge rathbuni. Fourth and fifth tarsal fusion in 21 of 28 Eurycea tridentifera (with accompanying tarsal 3 fusion in three), in 3 of 14 Typhlomolge troglodytes, 1 of 20 troglobitic populations of Eurycea neotenes, but only 6 of 100 tarsi of epigean populations of the latter.

Congenital – 98% of Dendrobates auratus developed spindly leg, in spite of high Spirulina algae food, but noted a genetic component – parent-dependent. Note that B. Ian Hyler had similar experience with Epipedobates (= Phyllobates) bassleri.

Trauma – Hind limb region regenerates more readily than forelimb in Lacerta vivipara. Y-shaped region of bone on distal femur.

Other rare cases of lizard regeneration in the wild (Singer 1961): Lacerta vivipara (Arel and Verrier 1930) and Liolaemus altissimus altissimus, Lacerta agilis, muralis, viridis, vivipara and Chalcides ocellatus (Hellmich 1951).

Congenital – Derodymus “Cobra de capim” Leimadophis poecilogyrus (Wied.), in the collection of the Butantan institute in São Paulo number 10370.

Congenital – Prado reported on a young female dicephalic snake, Leimadophis poecilogyrus (Wied.), commonly known as “Cobra de capim,” collected in October of 1942 in Pedro Leopoldo, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The specimen was entered into the collection of the Butantan Institute in São Paulo #10370. Each head possessed a short neck. Based on the size of the snake, Prado noted that it “lived for some time” (was not a neonate). A photograph of the specimen was included.

Congenital – Derodymus cobra de capim Leimadophis poecilogyrus (WIED), donated to the Butantan Institute in October of 1942. This specimen came from Pedro Leopoldo, Estado de Minas Gerais.

States that “monstrosities” in snakes were not very common; cited (Amaral 1927; Daniel 1941; Fischer 1868; Johnson 1901; Redi 1684), and also reports (without providing dates) by Aldrovandi, Aristotele, and Dumeril and Bibron.

Congenital – Review (brief) of literature on dicephalic snakes. Dicephalic Philodryas schottii (Schlegel) Instituto Butantã number 10592 and “cobra de capim” Leimadophis poecilogyrus (Wied) in the Instituto Butantã number 10370, similar to the case reported by Daniel (1941), in Chile by Gunckel (1944) and Pflaumer (1944).

Trauma – Autotomy in Sphenodon, Lacerta viridis, Anguis fragilis, Ophisaurus, Hemidactylus flaviridis.

Infection – Alleged osteitis deformans (Paget’s disease) in a Burmese python Python molurus bivittatus because of the presence of multifocal calcific vertebral overgrowths producing bulky cotton wool appearance, but this is extrinsic to the vertebrae, as well as illustrating disrupted trabeculae characteristic of osteomyelitis.

Metabolic – Alleged osteitis deformans (Paget’s disease) in a Burmese python Python molurus bivittatus because of the presence of multifocal calcific vertebral overgrowths producing bulky cotton wool appearance, but this is extrinsic to the vertebrae, as well as illustrating disrupted trabeculae characteristic of osteomyelitis.

Vertebral – Alleged osteitis deformans (Paget’s disease) in a Burmese python Python molurus bivittatus because of the presence of multifocal calcific vertebral overgrowths producing bulky cotton wool appearance, but this is extrinsic to the vertebrae, as well as illustrating disrupted trabeculae characteristic of osteomyelitis.

Trauma – Transverse cartilaginous vertebral septa in extant Sphenodon, Jurassic

Homeosaurus and Saphaeosaurus (Sauranodon), cervical 7 of Univ Oklahoma 1020 Captorhinus and also in Labidosaurus. Transverse process is vestigial.

Fossil – Transverse cartilaginous vertebral septa in extant Sphenodon, Jurassic

Homeosaurus and Saphaeosaurus (Sauranodon), cervical 7 of Univ Oklahoma 1020 Captorhinus and also in Labidosaurus. Transverse process is vestigial.

Congenital – Ten anomalous anurans from South America, all part of the collections of the National Natural History Museum of Uruguay (MNHN):

The Melanophryniscus genus had anomalies in 7.86% of their sample, contrasted with Amaro and Sena’s 1968 study, which only showed a 2% incidence of anomalies in Leptodactylus.

Shell – Clemmys leprosa with shell flaking related to a fungal disease.

Congenital – Defined true kinesis is the presence of defined active or passive hinging mechanism between shell elements. Note that demands for kinesis associated with adults (e.g., oviposition) are genetically determined while those that are involved in respiration, retraction, or “defense/threat, as in the kinosternids” result from pressures during ontogeny. One Sternotherus minor minor and two Sternotherus odoratus had akinetic plastons. Of 100 additional Sternotherus odoratus, ten had deficiencies of kinesis.

Congenital – Lordosis or swayback in Platysternon megacephalum (big-headed turtle) and Malacochersus tornieri.

Kyphosis in trionychids Apalone ferox.

Trauma – Retention of sutures may reduce crack propagation induced by trauma.

Environmental – Pyramiding, caused by abnormal humidity (excessively dry) or diet (too rich in protein or abnormal calcium/phosphate ratio), overfeeding dietary fiber, temperature, UV light, with central areolae sharply elevated in vertebral and costal scutes are mild in Geochelone pardalis, but extreme in wild Psammobates tentorius tentorius females. Only captive Geochelone carbonaria manifests pyramiding; also seen in Astrochelys radiata.

Shell disease – Pits illustrated in plastron of Hydromedusa tectifera, Chelodina oblonga, Heosemys spinosa; carapace of Macrochelys temminckii and Batagur baska.

Peculiar geographically circumscribed “pits” in carapace of Callagur borneoensis and irregular “resorption” in plastron of Cycloderma aubryi.

Scute anomalies: 5–7 Vertebral scutes in Notochelys platynota, 5–9 vertebral scutes in Lepidochelys olivacea, the latter often with a different number of costals on each side.

Note genetic and trauma (during embryonic stage)-induced scute abnormalities.

Triangular-shaped scutes producing symmetrical zigzag series in carapace of Geochelone carbonaria (red-footed tortoise).

Ankylosis occurs in very large old Apalone ferox, extinct Mascarene tortoises Cylindraspis. If it occurs solely between two shell bones, this may produce asymmetrical carapace distortion, as noted in Geochelone nigra.

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Related

Related posts:

1. Bibliography H-L
2. Bibliography M-N
3. Frequently Cited in Discussion of Amphibian and/or Reptile Pathology but which do not Discuss Actual Amphibian or Reptile Abnormalities
4. List of Fossil Taxa

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