Congenital – Survey of literature on anomalies in reptiles:

Trauma – Different fractures of femur and tibia in fossil Rana sp. and Bufo cf. bufo (Holocene of Pilsede, Mecklenburg, Germany) with callus formation. Infection – Infected fractures with chronic panostitis.

Fossil – Different fractures of femur and tibia in fossil Rana sp. and Bufo cf. bufo (Holocene of Pilsede, Mecklenburg, Germany) with callus formation. Infected fractures with chronic panostitis.

Other – 13 osteopathologies in reptiles (one turtle, 10 lizards, two snakes).

Trauma – Crocodylus porosus with amputation of first and second right metatarsals. States that head injuries are the least commonly reported in large crocodiles.

Dental – Crocodylus porosus with dentary loss from symphysis to 11th tooth alveoli and right dentary 7.5 cm shorter than left.

Congenital – Eastern garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis with duplication of skull of upper portion of skull and kinked back. He also reported a second individual with “body… separated in the middle, with the only connection being the esophagus.”

Trauma – Carapace fractures that cross the dorsal midline of chelonian, may be associated with spinal fractures.

Forest fire-induced carpace and plaston burns.

Infection – Osteomyelitis of fifth digit in Crocodylus siamensis.

Osteitis deformans-like changes from disseminated vertebral osteomyelitis.

Infection – Infection causing segmental fusion of 2–14 vertebral bodies with foci of irregular proliferative bone from infection.

Salmonella osteomyelitis causing vertebral fusion in eastern hognose snake Heterodon platirhinos, Western diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus atrox, Taylor’s cantil Agkistrodon bilineatus, Uracoan rattlesnake Crotalus vergrandis, and bush viper Atheris nitschei.

Proliferative bone changes with thickening of trabeculae with irregular cement lines in Boa constrictor (without subspecies, common name cannot be determined) – originally called Paget’s disease.

Metabolic – Chinese stripe-tailed snake Elaphe taeniura, possibly related to vitamin D deficiency.

Vertebral – Ankylosis, but bones resembled Paget’s disease histologically in a canebrake rattlesnake Crotalus horridus and in five Boa constrictor (without subspecies, common name cannot be determined).

Article intriguingly makes diagnosis of osteomyelitis when bacteria found and osteoarthritis, when none found. This is at variance with customary usage of term osteoarthritis.

Trauma – Hydrosaurus pustulatus with fracture.

Chamaeleo dilepis and Varanus bengalensis with multiple rib fractures. Iguana iguana with regenerated tail rod.

Infection – Iguana iguana with jaw described as osteoporosis (but more actinomycotic in appearance).

Metabolic – Testudo radiata again labeled as osteoporosis, but cystic changes, Iguana iguana with rachitic skull.

Uromastix sp. with possible pseudogout (manifest as calcific deposits).

Neoplasia – Amphibolurus with probable limb tumor.

Vertebral – Madagascar tree boa Sanzinia madagascariensis with scoliotic spinal bump.

Boa constrictor (without subspecies, common name cannot be determined) labeled as Paget’s disease (but appears more like a spondyloarthropathy) and Bitis nasicornis with similar, but unilateral changes.

Other – Alligator mississippiensis with reactive bone and adherent calcification.

Toxicology – Bisphenol A-induced scoliosis and skull abnormality (reduction of distance between the eyes in Xenopus laevis.

Trauma – Fractures in female Rana catesbeiana was 11.1%, contrasted with 6.5% in overall group. This was greater than that found in Bufo bufo japonicus.

Neoplasia – “Bone tumor” was seen in 12.9% of 85 Bufo bufo japonicus in 1965.

Environmental – Variation in Bufo bufo japonicus size from 111 mm in 1962 to 78 mm in 1963 to 144 mm in 1965 in the Niiguta Prefectorate in Japan.

Skeletal anomalies in Bufo bufo japonicus and Rana catesbeiana included deformed or fused spine, absence or deformity of transverse processes, abnormal articular processes, glenoid or finger bones, and “mismatched” iliac bones. The prevalence in Bufo bufo japonicus ranged from 15% of 80 in 1962 to 22.5% of 80 in 1963 and 39.2% of 85 in 1965. The prevalence in Rana catesbeiana was 9.1%. Zeroth vertebral articular process was abnormal was “front/back” in 85.9% of 77 Rana catesbeiana and 14.1%, “posterior only.”Third transverse process tended to have small protrusion in Rana catesbeiana (especially left side),” compared with 40–80% of female (right side in 73.6%) in Bufo bufo japonicus.

Congenital – Supernumerary forelimb in Rana nigromaculata.

Congenital – 92 specimens of the frog Dendrophryniscus brevipollicatus from four different localities in Brazil with vertebral variation: Specimens from Paranapiacaba and Serra da Bocaina had seven free presacral vertebrae and a sacrum formed by vertebra VIII + sacral vertebra + fused urostyle. Specimens from Santa Teresa had six free presacral vertebrae and a sacrum formed by vertebra VII + vertebra VIII + sacral vertebra + fused urostyle. In many specimens from Guanabara (86%), vertebra VIII was not fused with the sacral vertebra and some had several types of fusion among presacral vertebrae. A few instances of fusion of vertebrae I and II existed in three populations (Serra da Bocaina, Santa Teresa, and Tijuca).

Congenital – Female of Triton cristatus with additional short front leg attached before the base of the right thoracic limb.

Congenital – Deirochelys reticularia with biconvex (instead of opisthocoelous) third cervical vertebrae.

Vertebral – Deirochelys reticularia with biconvex (instead of opisthocoelous) third cervical vertebrae.

Congenital – Deformed beaks in four of 100; deformed shell, in three; leg weakness and deformity, in eight.

Trauma – Foreleg was gnawed off turtle during hibernation by rat.

Metabolic – Nutritional osteodystrophy in softshell turtles and almost exclusively in terrapins, citing Keymer’s 1978 report of 15% frequency of nutritional osteodystrophy in 122 freshwater chelonians on postmortem examination. Nutritional osteodystrophy diagnosed in 31 turtles, mostly related to low calcium, high phorphorus diet.

Trauma – Fractures in turtles.

Metabolic – Nutritional osteodystrophy in turtles presents as carapace lumps which become conical. Shell is undersized and beak, overgrown.

Metabolic – Nutritional osteodystrophy in lizards, chelonians, and crocodilians, usually related to diet, presenting with softening, deformity and shortening of carapace, short mandibles, greenstick fractures, nonunion, swollen deformed legs, and kyphoscoliosis. Hermann’s tortoise Testudo hermanni with short mandible, misshapened limb bones and humped carapace shields from nutritional osteodystrophy. Hydroxyapatite in Uromastix hip, wrist, spinal column, and stifle joints.

Stone – Cloacal (bladder) calculi.

Metabolic – X-rays of nutritional osteodystrophy in Testudo graeca.

Congenital – Kinked spine in reticulated python Python reticulatus.

Infection – Infectious osteolysis of Testudo distal tibia, fibula, and tarsals.

Metabolic – Nutritional osteodystrophy in Iguana iguana and red-eared terrapin Trachemys scripta elegans.

Infection – Shell necrosis in a turtle caused by Mucorales.

Shell disease – Shell necrosis in a turtle caused by Mucorales.

Neoplasia – Chondro-osteofibroma in Cyclura cornuta.

Squamous cell cancer destroying fifth metatarsal and phalanges in Tupinambis teguixin.

Multiple enchondromas in Varanus dracoena.

Neoplasia – Enchondroma in distal metaphyses of humerus, metacarpals, hyoid, and cervical vertebrae in Indian monitor, Varanus dracoena.

Metabolic – Curvature of spine, jaw growth abnormalities, and teeth at abnormal oblique angles from metabolic bone disease in crocodilians.

Congenital – Anterior duplication of flat-bellied turtle Chrysemys nelsoni, also citing Appleby and Siller 1960 and Wallach 1969.

Infection – Florida softshell turtle Trionyx ferox with mucomycosis producing carapace lesion, citing Jacobson et al. 1980. Moralus fungus produced plaston lesions in Florida softshell turtle Trionyx ferox, citing Hunt 1957. Fusarian shell infection in radiated tortoise Testudo radiata.

Metabolic – Nutritional bone disease producing vertebral curvature and shell deformitiy in turtle. Gout in chelonian, citing Frye 1981.

Neoplasia occurrence in reptiles – Citing Jacobson 1981

Shell disease – Florida softshell turtle Trionyx ferox with mucomycosis producing carapace lesion, citing Jacobson et al. 1980. Moralus fungus produced plaston lesions in Florida softshell turtle Trionyx ferox, citing Hunt 1957. Fusarian shell infection in radiated tortoise Testudo radiata.

Infection – Digital, long bone and pelvic girdle osteomyelitis is common in captive green iguanas, with Pseudomonas and Escherichia coli cultured. Neoplasia – Chondro-osteofibroma in a rhinoceros iguana.

Infection – Burmese brown tortoise Manouria emys with large abscess of forelimb and another with focal ulcerative lesion on plaston – linked to a coelomic cavity bacterial abscess. Chromomycosis of lower jaw in radiated tortoise (Frank 1970).

Metabolic – Osteopenia, and thinning of peripheral and lateral hypoplastron region trabeculae producing spongy appearance in Beaver Dam Slope Arizona and Utah tortoises, noting osteodystrophy in 12 of 144 chelonians reported by the Zoological Society of London (Keymer 1978). Parathyroid adenoma in red-footed tortoise Frye and Carney 1975).

Shell disease – Cites Rosskopf’s 1986 claim that shell disease derives from infectious organisms.

Metabolic – Growth arrest lines produced by hibernation in reptiles.

Infection – Alligator with wound-induced shoulder abscess (Novak and Seigel 1986).

“Multifocal osteoarthritis” in green iguanas with mixed gram negatives (actually osteomyelitis); foot abscess-induced osteomyelitis in Iguana iguana; maxillary osteomyelitis from stomatitis in meadow viper Vipera ursinii.

“Osteoarthritis” caseous material in distal hind foot joint space with osteomyelitis in Iguana iguana – actually osteomyelitis.

Osteomyelitis of vertebrae and ribs with pitted proliferation crossing joint space in Russian rat snake Elaphe schrenckii and Boa constrictor (without subspecies, common name cannot be determined), vertebral bone lysis from streptococcal infection in eastern hognose (Isaza et al. 2000.) and in Boa constrictor (without subspecies, common name cannot be determined) from Edwardsiella, Bitis nasicornis with Enterococcus osteomyelitis; Crotalus willardi osteomyelitis from Salmonella enterica-arizonae (Schroetter et al. 2005).

Neisseria iguanae induced proliferation of hyoid in green iguana dewlap abscess (Barrett et al. 1994; Plowman et al. 1987).

Serratia lipolysis facilitation of Citrobacter shell disease (Jackson and Fulton 1970).

Mycoplasma and Chlamydia-induced polyarthritis in Nile crocodiles in Israel (Levisohn, cited in Mohen et al. 1995). Mycoplasma crocodyli polyarthritis in Crocodylus niloticus (Mohan et al. 1995; Kirchoff et al. 1997). Mycoplasma iguanae granuloma with osteomyelitis in green iguana (Brown et al. 2005, 2006).

Nocardia-induced metacarpal osteolysis (Harmes et al. 2002).

Erysipothrix in Crocodylus acutus (Jasmin and Baucom 1967) and snapping turtle (Keymer 1978b)

Acid fast organisms in plaston of African soft-shelled Trionyx triunguis (Friedman 1903). Mycobacterium chelonae of elbow of Kemp’s ridley sea turtle (Greer et al. 2003). M. chelonae ulcerative proliferative mouth lesion in Boa.

Arthritis – Multifocal arthritis in Alligator mississippiensis (Brown et al. 2001b).

Vertebral – Lytic and proliferative vertebral disease in snakes, citing Kiel 1977; Isaza 2000, noting this is not Paget’s disease.

Boa constrictor (without subspecies, common name cannot be determined) with “degenerative vertebral osteoarthrosis and histological ankylosis with irregular cartilage and bone deposits” but no inflammation. Clearly not osteoarthritis, but etiology unclear – consider neuropathic?

Vascular – Thromboembolism-induced distal tail necrosis in Burmese python Python molurus bivittatus.

Neuropathic – Boa constrictor (without subspecies, common name cannot be determined) with “degenerative vertebral osteoarthrosis and histological ankylosis with irregular cartilage and bone deposits” but no inflammation. Clearly not osteoarthritis, but etiology unclear – consider neuropathic?

Shell disease – Disfiguring shell disease with dermal bone remodeling in river cooters Pseudemys concinna and yellow-bellied turtles (Garner et al. 1997; Lovich et al. 1996). Constrictor, river cooter Pseudemys concinna with disfigured shell carapace and plaston called segmental necrosis and remodeling, appearing as bulky proliferative lesions.

Ulcerative shell with scute shelling from Beneckia chitinosora in sliders, musk, side necked and painted turtles (Wallach 1975).

Serratia lipolysis facilitates Citrobacter shell disease (Jackson and Fulton 1970).

Shell disease – Shell lesions from Spirorchis in emydine turtles.

Barnacles without information on alterations in turtle bone/shell.

Illustrates chicken turtle Deirochelys reticularia with Spirochidiasis ulcerations into dermal bone and barnacles on head and shell of Caretta caretta.

Shell disease – Florida softshell turtle Trionyx ferox with multifocal carapace surface disruptions attributed to Mucor.

Infection – Osteomyelitis in rhinoceros viper.

Shell disease – Shell necrosis in desert tortoise Gopherus agassizii, especially affecting the plaston. Possible relationship to the spring food Astragalus, Stanleya, and Xylorrhiza, which produces aliphatic nitro compounds.

Congenital – Derodymous sand boa Sri Lanka or rough-scaled sand boa Eryx conicus.

Congenital – Observations of growth of Pelobates fuscus male with two additional hind legs (X-rays): the third pair of legs grows together, no handicap in movements.

Trauma – 19.5% of Acanthodactylus erythrurus (27% of 447 tail loss), 18% of Lacerta lepida (24.6% of 65), 20.3% of Podarcis hispanica (59.3% of 81), 23.5% of Psammodromus algirus (32.5% of 169), and 0.8% of Tarentola mauritanica (54.5% of 121) were prey. Tail loss was not proportional to amount of known predation.

Trauma – Frequency of tail regeneration in Liolaemus altissimus (53%), chiliensis (24%), fuscus (76%), lemniscatus (49%), leopardinus (43%), monticola (68%), nigromaculatus (58%), nigroviridis (77%), nitidus (63%), platei (41%), schroederi (38%), and tenuis (67%) was equal in juveniles and adults and gender and body size independent, but correlated with frequency of utilization of elevated perches.

Trauma – Tail break frequencies do not correlate with predation density, despite their having been used as such an index for snakes (Gehlbach 1972; Greene 1973; Zug et al. 1979), salamanders (Shaffer 1978), amphisbaenians (Papenfuss 1982), and in lizards, the relationship may actually be negative.

Eumeces gilberti had more tail loss than Gerrhonotus multicarinatus, Sceloporus occidentalis, and Uta stansburiana.

Confounding factors include activity periods and survivorship (Tinkle and Ballinger 1972; Vinegar 1975), intraspecific aggression (Blair 1960; Bustard and Hughes 1966; Norris 1953; Tinkle 1967; Vitt and Ohmart 1974), microhabitat preferences (Ballinger 1973; Jaksić and Fuentes 1980; Pianka and Huey 1978; Pianka and Pianka 1976; Werner 1968), and variable ease of autotomy (Congdon et al. 1974; Vitt et al. 1977). Schoener (1979) and with Schoener (1980) also suggested that injury with tail regeneration reflected predator inefficiency.

Congenital – Kyphoscoliosis from fracture in #19 thoracic vertebra and in #28 vertebra of Agkistrodon piscivorus.

Congenital – Atloidic dicephalic Tropidonotus fasciatus from North America, in the collections of the Museo Civico of Milano, although Cantoni (1921) was unable to locate it. [Italian]

Congenital – Dysalotosaurus with hemivertebra.

Veterbral – Dysalotosaurus with hemivertebra.

Fossil – Dysalotosaurus with hemivertebra.

Congenital – Turtle kyphosis.

Trauma – jaw, extremity and shell fractures in turtles, fractures in lizards and snakes.

Metabolic – Osteoporosis, rickets, osteomalacia and osteodystrophia fibrosa in turtles and lizards and osteodystrophy in snakes.

Congenital – Dicephalic python, actually Russell’s viper.

Congenital – Dicephalic Russell’s viper.

Trauma – 52 of 445 Thamnophis sirtalis fitchi lost 3–80% of their tails, without significant effect on locomotion. Loss of two third of tail resulted in 4.5% reduction in speed.

Trauma – Negative correlation between tail length residual and running speed capability.

Infection – Proximal interphalangeal joint infection in unnamed reptile species.

Metabolic – Unnamed reptile species with foot gout.

Shell disease – Gangrene as hole on the right side of the carapace caused by bacteria.

Trauma – Tail autotomy related to conspecific fights, as well as failed predation. Autotomy in curly tailed lizard Leiocephalus schreibersi was documented in a female during mating with a struggling female. Incidently, the male ate the severed tail subsequent to completion of mating.

Environmental – Chinese skink Eumeces chinensis incubated at 30°C had longest tails and those at 32°C, the smallest heads (all versus 24°C and 26°C).

Environmental – More deformed oriental garden lizard Calotes versicolor embryos when incubated at 33°C.

Congenital – Slider salamander Batrachoseps trunk vertebrae vary from 16 to 23, even within populations – a phenotypically plastic character. Costal Batrachoseps attenuatus had 19, while inland had 22. Females tended to have more than males, especially in Batrachoseps major and Batrachoseps relictus. Females with more than 21 trunk vertrebrae more often had more without ribs and fewer caudosacral vertebrae. Absent ribs correlated with more than two caudosacral vertebrae. “5.8% had different numbers of trunk vertebrae on the left and right” (page 1972). Jockusch determined the number of trunk vertebrae based on the position of the pelvic articulation. There are animals in which pelvic articulation is asymmetric, articulating with the 21st vertebra on one side and the 22nd on the other. Asymmetry ranged from 0% to 16.7%. Negative correlation between number of presacral vertebrae and number of phalanges (index of limb reduction occurs in skink Lerista and Chalcides. Reduced limbs are associated with increased elongation. Number of vertebrae correlated inversely with length of species. Performance differences correlate with numbers of vertebrae in some snakes.

Environmental – More trunk vertebrae were present in higher temperature environments, except Batrachoseps nigriventris, wherein trunk vertebral number was decreased between 7 and 13°C.

Toxicology – Ammonia concentration of 0.6 mg/l (increasing to 100% at 0.9 mg/l) in green frogs Rana clamitans and 1.5 mg/l (increasing to 60% at 2.25 mg/l) in leopard frogs Rana pipiens induced deformities, but not in American toads Bufo americanus (as high as 0.9 mg/l). Asymmetric bodies, curled spine, short and/or deformed tails were noted.

Congenital – Supernumerary limbs in Rana palmipes and Rana halecina.

Congenital – Dicephalic probable Tropidonotus fasciata fasciata, 2 Tropidonotus fasciata sipedon, 2 Bascanium constrictor, Ancistrodon piscivorus, Ophiobolus getulus, Ophiobolus getulus getulus, Pityophis, Pituophis catenifer (Anonymous 1878), Eutania sirtalis, Eutania sirtalis sirtalis, Thamnophis elegans ­lineolata, a milk snake and a rat snake. He also reports an abnormal frog, previously described by Kingsley (American Naturalist XII:694–695).

Congenital – Dicephalic: Hog-nose snake Heterodon simus, black snake Bascanium constrictor, Western bull snake Pituophis catenifer, bull snake Pituophis sayi, king snake Ophiobolus getulus, milk snake Lampropeltis triangulum, water snake Tropidonotus fasciata sipedon, Tropidonotus fasciata fasciata, garter snake Eutainia sirtalis sirtalis, Eutainia elegans lineolata and cotton-mouth moccasin Ancistrodon piscivorus.

Congenital – Captorhinomorph vertebra from the Lower Permian with two rib attachments on right; three, on left, noting incomplete/missing right posterior and left anterior processes and right anterior parapophysis.

Fossil – Captorhinomorph vertebra from the Lower Permian with two rib attachments on right; three, on left, noting incomplete/missing right posterior and left anterior processes and right anterior parapophysis.

Metabolic – Metabolic bone disease manifest as fracture or deformity from dietary/husbandry mismanagement.

Shell disease – Multifocal, circular gray areas, with Aspergillus, Beauvaria,Cladosporium, and Paecilomyces isolated.

Ulcerative shell disease attributed to Baneckea chitonovora.

Infection – Ribeiroia infection is predictor of malformation frequencies.

Congenital – Widespread appearance of malformed amphibians in the mid-1990s. Laboratory studies implicated infection by a digenetic trematode – Ribeiroia ondatrae, suggesting exogenous agents (e.g., pesticides, nutrient runoff, introduced fishes) might be interacting with Ribeiroia.

Infection – Widespread appearance of malformed amphibians in the mid-1990s. Laboratory studies implicated infection by a digenetic trematode – Ribeiroia ondatrae, suggesting exogenous agents (e.g., pesticides, nutrient runoff, introduced fishes) might be interacting with Ribeiroia.

Infection – Trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae cercariae cyst infestation-induced deformities in Pacific tree frogs Hyla regilla.

Infection – Trematode Ribeiroia ondatrae cyst infestation induced deformities in western toads Bufo boreas.

Congenital – Ribeiroia ondatrae preferentitally infects limb buds. Pacific tree frogs have more abnormalities than western toads and less than California newts. More than 5% ectomelia, ectodactyly, supernumerary limbs, polymelia, polydactyly, and jaw malformations at sites where Ribeiroia is found. Pesticides and “metabolite compounds” were not differentially present. Affected animals include long-toed salamander Ambystoma macrodactylum, rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa, California newt Tarocja tprpsa, western toad Bufo boreas (predominantly ectodactyly and ectomelia), Pacific tree frog Hyla regilla, Northern red-legged frog Rana aurora, Cascades frog Rana cascadae, American bullfrog Rana catesbeiana, and Columbia spotted frog Rana luteiventris especially at sites with Ribeiroia and fish present. 94% of involvement among anurans was hind limb; 56.9% in urodeles.

Infection – Ribeiroia ondatrae preferentitally infects limb buds. Pacific tree frogs have more abnormalities than western toads and less than California newts. More than 5% ectomelia, ectodactyly, supernumerary limbs, polymelia, polydactyly, and jaw malformations at sites where Ribeiroia is found. Affected animals include long-toed salamander Ambystoma macrodactylum, rough-skinned newt Taricha granulosa, California newt Tarocja tprpsa, western toad Bufo boreas (predominantly ectodactyly and ectomelia), Pacific tree frog Hyla regilla, Northern red-legged frog Rana aurora, Cascades frog Rana cascadae, American bullfrog Rana catesbeiana, and Columbia spotted frog Rana luteiventris especially at sites with Ribeiroia and fish present.

Congenital – Review of available information for nine historical accounts from California, Colorado, Idaho, Mississippi, Montana, Ohio, and Texas reported between 1946 and 1988 revealed malformations at six of eight sites were associated with infection by Ribeiroia, dating back as far as 1946. Malformations recorded historically at these sites were consistent with the documented effects of Ribeiroia infection, including extra limbs, cutaneous fusion, and bony triangles. Of the six sites that still supported amphibians upon resurvey, three continued to support severe limb malformations (polydactyly, polymelia of hind limbs) at frequencies of 75% in one or more species [Ambystoma tigrinum, Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum (with forelimb polymelia also), Rana pipiens, Rana catesbeiana, Hyla regilla]. Although no pesticides were detected, ­amphibians from each of these sites were infected with Ribeiroia metacercariae. Specifically reported in Hyla regilla were ectodactyly, polydactyly, ectomelia, hemimelia, polymelia, polypodia, taumelia, and micromelia.

Infection – Review of available information for nine historical accounts from California, Colorado, Idaho, Mississippi, Montana, Ohio, and Texas reported between 1946 and 1988 revealed malformations at six of eight sites were associated with infection by Ribeiroia, dating back as far as 1946. Malformations recorded historically at these sites were consistent with the documented effects of Ribeiroia infection, including extra limbs, cutaneous fusion, and bony triangles. Of the six sites that still supported amphibians upon resurvey, three continued to support severe limb malformations (polydactyly, polymelia of hind limbs) at frequencies of 75% in one or more species [Ambystoma tigrinum, Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum (with forelimb polymelia also), Rana pipiens, Rana catesbeiana, Hyla regilla]. Although no pesticides were detected, amphibians from each of these sites were infected with Ribeiroia metacercariae. Specifically reported in Hyla regilla were ectodactyly, polydactyly, ectomelia, hemimelia, polymelia, polypodia, taumelia, and micromelia.

Environmental – Eutrophication (increased nitrogen and phosphorus content) of environments increases Ribeiroia ondatrae emergence, because of promotion of algal production, increasing density of snail hosts and of infection.

Congenital – Polydactyly in Salamandra salamandra, noting that Bishop and Hamilton (1947) reported 17 instances of polydactyly among Ambystoma tigrinum from Colorado lake.

Congenital – Derodymous black rat snake.

Trauma – Lizard with double tail as malformation [vol.1, book 4c. II art. I a. II, p. 134].

Congenital – Derodymous Serpens biceps. Illustrated with elevated collar around neck that was twice as long as head. Membrane on body suggests ? sea snake?

Neoplasia – Sphenodon BMB 101688 with circular mass on external surface of jugal.

Congenital – Longisquama insignis, a Late Triassic central Asian archosaur has paired integumentary appendages. The basal region is similar to the calamus of modern feathers, and these appendages are interpreted as nonavian feathers, homologous with avian feathers, antedating the feathers of the Later Jurassic Archaeopteryx.

Fossil – Longisquama insignis, a Late Triassic central Asian archosaur has paired integumentary appendages. The basal region is similar to the calamus of modern feathers, and these appendages are interpreted as nonavian feathers, homologous with avian feathers, antedating the feathers of the Later Jurassic Archaeopteryx.

Congenital – Ectomelia in Rana temporaria.

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Related posts:

1. Bibliography M-N
2. Bibliography D-G
3. Frequently Cited in Discussion of Amphibian and/or Reptile Pathology but which do not Discuss Actual Amphibian or Reptile Abnormalities
4. List of Fossil Taxa

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