Congenital – Partial dicephaly and partial body duplication and absent lower jaw in parthenogenetic Lacerta armeniaca, tail duplication, and abnormal head in Lacerta dahli. Frequency of “monsters” in pathogenic species Lacerta armeniaca (5%), dahlia (8%), rostombekovi (5%), unisexualis (3%), contrasted with bisexual Lacerta radii nairensis (1%) and valentine (2%) (Danielyan 1970; Darevsky 1966).

Congenital – Embryos and young Kaukasian rock lizard with shortening and arching of lower jaw, partial duplication of head, duplication of trunk (fused in anterior body and head) and loss of lower jaw, which were more common in parthenogenetic forms than in bisexual reproducing forms.

Trauma – Trifid tail in Hemidactylus flaviridis and produced in laboratory by injuring Gekko verticillatus.

Toxicology – Vitamin A-induced anteroposterior, proximodistal and dorsoventral duplications and single, paired and supernumerary limbs in Polypedates maculatus.

Toxicology – Ectomely, meromely, phocomely, and polymely from excess vitamin A in Bufo melanostictus.

Vertebral – Vertebral fusions in 8–12% of skipper frog Rana cyanophylictis as a dominant trait in vicinity of Delhi.

Trauma – Radiographs of reticulated or regal Python reticulatus with broken and healed ribs (callus formation) and broken vertebral column (final cause of death).

Trauma – Tail regeneration in Caiman crocodilus and Alligator mississipiensis, citing similar regeneration in Melanosuchus niger (Kälin 1937).

Fossil – Tail regeneration in Melanosuchus niger (Kälin 1937).

Trauma – Procedures to repair fractured distal epiphysis of right humerus in lizard.

Congenital – Dicephalic grass snake Natrix natrix helveticus and adder Vipera berus.

Congenital – Dicephalic grass snake Natrix natrix helveticus and adder Vipera berus.

Congenital – Dicephalic grass snake Natrix natrix (Doe 1915) and

Summarizes literature of four cases of Natrix natrix and one of Vipera berus.

Metabolic – Vitamin “dusting” prevents spindly leg in Hyla arborea and Epipedobates tricolor.

Congenital – Dicephalic serpent.

Toxicology – Aromatic amines induce abnormalities in Xenopus laevis, but no description. One image revealed a bent tail.

Neoplasia – Chondrosarcoma in corn snake Elaphe guttata vertebrae.

Trauma – Forked tail regeneration in tuatara.

Tail bifurcation in Agama tuberculata, citing Chandra and Mukherjee

Congenital – Accessory (extra) tail in Triturus viridescens.

Trauma – Autotomy in gecko occurs during the day, rarely at night.

Congenital – Derodymous yellow anaconda snake Eunectes notaeus Coleção Zoológica de Referência of the Campus do Pantanal/UFMS (CEUCH 6024). This is 28th Boidae dicephalism, 2nd from South America, and 28th in Brazil.

Other dicephalic Boidae include Acrantophis dumerilii, Boa constrictor, Epicrates angulifer, Epicrates cenchria, Epicrates maurus, Epicrates striatus, Lichanura roseofusca, and Gongylophis conicus (Cunha 1968; Hoser and Harris 2005; Smith and Pérez-Higareda 1988; Vinegar 1973; Wallach 2007).

Cites dicephalism in lizards (Gekkonidae, Scincidae, and Lacertidae), snakes (Leptotyphlopidae, Pythonidae, Boideae, Tropidophiidae, Viperidae, Elapidae, Hydrophiidae, and Colubridae) (Mcallister and Wallach 2006; Spadola and Insacco 2009) and that 1,087 cases have been found to date, with 171 species in 95 genera.

Congenital – Bilateral cleft palate in prairie rattlesnake Crotalus viridis viridis.

Congenital – Kinks and dicephalism in 7.7% of Bothrops moojeni.

Trauma – Repeated amputations in Notophthalmus viridescens, normal at first, become increasing abnormal, leaving a simple regenerative spike in 14%.

Regeneration is affected by temperature (27% at 25°C and 33% at 30°C) (Schmidt 1968; Schaube and Nentwig 1974), body size and age (Goodwin 1946; Manner et al. 1960; Pritchett and Dent 1972; Zamaraev 1974), season of year (Schauble 1972), starvation (Twitty and Delanney 1939), and level of amputation (Iten and Bryant 1973; Smith et al. 1974).

Congenital – Monstrosities and conjoined twin lizards occur less commonly than multiple-tailed lizards, citing dicephalic snake reports by Aldrovandi, Lanzoni, and Redi, and stating similar cases were later reported on lizards. Duméril preserved a derodymous lizard in the museum of Paris, and another was presented at the 1831 Science Academy of Paris by Beltrami and Rigol.

Trauma – Lizards with two or three tails are frequently encountered, and according to Bonaparte (1832–41), some have been observed to have four or seven tails (all of which are internally cartilaginous).

Congenital – Dicephalic viper from Vicenza province, preserved in De Betta’s collection of European reptiles.

Congenital – Refers the reader to a future paper

(De Betta, 1865) on a dicephalic Vipera aspis, captured in 1861, which was and also reported in Gazzetta di Fiume on December 2nd of 1861.

Congenital – Dicephalic snake Vipera aspis. Additionally, review of the history of serpent dicephaly.

Congenital – Two cases of dicephalic Vipera aspis (specimen in De Betta 1865 and one additional specimen).

Congenital – Three dicephalic Tropidonotus natrix (Natrix natrix) Wagl., one in the Civic Museum of Milan, Italy).

Congenital – De Betta reviewed various herpetological species found in Italy, and remarked in which cases he knew of anomalies. He cited himself (1874 and 1878, respectively) for examples of dicephalic Vipera aspis and Tropidonotus natrix. He also mentioned Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire reported other cases in snakes (1827) and one dicephalic lizard (Histoire des anomalies, Tom. III, pg. 132). De Betta remarked that he knew of only three cases of dicephalic lizards. One was the case published by St.-Hilaire, another was a young lizard with two heads and two distinct necks found in the collections of the museum of Paris (France), and the third was the very young two-headed Anguis fragilis reported by Lessona (1877). He provided an in-depth review of the latter. De Betta also cited the work of Strobel (1876) on polimelic Rana, and discussed his ideas on the frequency of the anomaly in batracians. De Betta mentioned that Strobel had reported two cases of polimely in Rana esculenta, and one in R. temporaria, and later two more cases in R. esculenta. He also mentioned Sordelli (1876), but refered to the species reported therein as Rana esculenta (not R. viridis). Additonally, De Betta cited Cavanna (1877), and his two cases of polimely in R. esculenta. Most importantly, De Betta reported a new case of polimely in R. esculenta. The specimen was captured in the fall of 1880 in the province of Mantova, and given to De Betta in September of 1881. It was not fully grown, and its normal limbs were normally developed. It had one right supernumerary hindlimb that attached in the pubic region and was atrophied in all its parts, and ended in a stump without a foot or toes. Lastly, he reviews Camerano (1882) and polimely in Triton taeniatus.

Metabolic – Omphalosaurus, Stenopterygius, and Ichthyosaurus limb bone cortex composed of woven fibers, suggesting rapid postnatal growth with endotherm-like metabolic rate.

Fossil – Omphalosaurus, Stenopterygius, and Ichthyosaurus limb bone cortex composed of woven fibers, suggesting rapid postnatal growth with endotherm-like metabolic rate.

Trauma – Lacerta with bifid tail.

Environmental – Grass lizard Takydromus wolteri hatched at 33°C had shorter, narrower heads than from lower temperature incubation (Pan and Ji 2001).

Sceloporus virgatus, Bassiana duperreyi, Oligosoma suteri, and Chinese skink Eumeces chinensis had shorter tails when incubated in the cold (15–25°C) (Elphick and Shine 1998; Hare et al. 2002; Ji and Zhang 2001; Qualls and Andrews 1999). Wall lizard Podarcis muralis head, tail, and femur were longest at 26–29°C (versus 32°C, where head was widest) (Braña and Ji 2000; Ji and Braña 1999). Oedura ocellata had tail defects at 30°C (Bustard 1969). Pine snake Pituophis melanoleucus incubated at low 21–23°C were shorter, with shorter tails (Burger et al. 1987). Burmese, Indian, or Ceylon Python molorus incubated at low temperature of 27.5°C had tail defects (Vinegar 1974).

Congenital – Supernumerary limb in Rana esculenta, citing Avel and Baer’s (1929) report in Discoglossus pictus.

Trauma – Eocene Pelomedusidae Neochelys aff. salmanticensis with trauma-induced asymmetrical xifiplastron and pelvis.

Fossil – Eocene Pelomedusidae Neochelys aff. salmanticensis with trauma-induced asymmetrical xifiplastron and pelvis.

Dental – One female of Crocodylus porosus with abnormal teeth: Many together in one alveoli (normal number of alveoli in jaw), malformed teeth (different sizes and shapes).

Trauma – Bifurcated tail in Rhacodactylus trachyrhynchus, Lacerta muralis and Hemidactylus mabouia, noting previous reports by Pline, Gesner, and Aldrovande.

Shell disease – Multiple isolated and grouped round (occasionally irregular shaped) pits in Lissemys punctata MTD 42711, noting on p. 466 that “pathological condition of surface frequently occurring in soft-shelled turtles.”

Congenital – Review of hypermely in wild urodels, both caused by natural trauma and that purposefully caused in laboratory experiments on not only urodels, but also larval anurans. Results on the inverse double regeneration of the leg in Triton experimentally verified Bateson’s law. The hypermely seen in wild urodels, that obtained from trauma, and that obtained from experiments in larvae were only special cases of the same order of phenomena.

Trauma – Review of hypermely in wild urodels, both caused by natural trauma and that purposefully caused in laboratory experiments on not only urodels, but also larval anurans. Results on the inverse double regeneration of the leg in Triton experimentally verified Bateson’s law. The hypermely seen in wild urodels, that obtained from trauma, and that obtained from experiments in larvae were only special cases of the same order of phenomena.

Congenital – Supernumerary limb in Rana esculenta.

Congenital – Supernumerary hind limbs in Rana esculenta and Rana temporaria, citing Strobel and in bactarins, citing Gervais.

Metabolic – Osteomalacia/rickets from vitamin D, phosphate or UV deficiency in Geochelone pardilis and Greek turtle.

Osteodystrophia fibroa from excess phosphate.

Gout in Greek turtle.

Congenital – Kyphosis in Melanochelys trijuga thermalis.

Congenital – Rana cyanophylictis with two pelvic girdles and supernumerary limbs.

Congenital – Derodymous Tit polonga Vipera russelli and Ptyas mucosus.

Congenital – Derodymous painted turtle Chrysemys picta, noting similar report by Barbour (1888).

Shell disease – Chrysemys picta fifth neural plate on right carapace reduced in size and triangular in shape.

Trauma – Tail duplication in lizards.

Congenital – Dicephalic Russell’s earth-snake or red-earth boa Eryx conicus.

Congenital – Rana sp.? with a supernumerary arm to the right of its back (but Gervais claimed left instead (after Mazza 1888).

Metabolic – Oxygen deprivation producing teratogenesis in Ambystoma.

Congenital – Spine kink attributed to low calcium in Rhacodactylus.

Metabolic – Metabolic bone disease and spine kink attributed to low calcium in Rhacodactylus.

Trauma – Autotomy in leopard gecko.

Metabolic – Metabolic bone disease with leg deviation and rubber jaw in leopard gecko.

Congenital – Derodymous bisexual black racer snake (Coluber constrictor).

Trauma – Tail autotomy in 2 of 8 salamander families and 13 of 20 lizard families (Shaffer 1978; Wake and Dresner 1967).

Species that autotomize the tail use it as a major site of energy storage.

Total energy reserves accounted for 53% of reproductive energy investment in tailed Coleonyx brevis contrasted with 29% in tailless.

Trauma – Tailless Scincella lateralis have less locomotor efficiency and did not escape snake Lampropeltis triangulum predation, in contast to escape by 73% of those with tails. The latter used autotomy 50% of the time to escape.

Neoplasia – Cornsnake Elaphe gutata guttata with rib osteolysis from colon cancer, citing Latimer and Rich (1998).

Infection – Mycobacterial foot infection in shingle-backed skink Trachydosaurus rugosa.

Metabolic – Fibrous dystrophy.

Metatarsal phalangeal joint typically affected in gout.

Vascular – Tail constriction producing avascular necrosis.

Neoplasia – Toe sarcoma in green iguana Iguana iguana.

Arthritis – Treatment of Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens with collagenase leads to osteoarthritis.

Trauma – Tails of most plethodontid salamanders have an autotomy-“designed” basal constriction and internal weak point modification, but the terrestrial Plethodon cinereus has each myosepta as a potential autotomy plane.

Mufti and Simpson (1972) discussed tail regeneration in the plethodontid salamander Desmognathus fuscus and noted that the newt Notophthalmus viridescens does not undergo tail autotomy.

Congenital – Dicephalic Thamnophis sirtalis.

Pseudopathology – Charina bottae is known as the two-headed, silver and worm snake because the tail is almost as blunt as the head.

Pseudopathology – Charina bottae is known as the two-headed, silver and worm snake because the tail is almost as blunt as the head.

Trauma – Supernumerary tail in western swift Sceloropus biseriatus.

Environmental – Chronic calcium or UV light (290–320 nm) and vitamin D or

improper calcium/phosphorus dietary ratio produces osteopenia (general lack of mineralization with thin cortices and deformed bones) in Argentine horned frog Ceratophrys ornata.

Metabolic – Generalized lack of bone mineralization in Argentine horned frog Ceratophrys ornata as manifestation of nutritional metabolic bone disease.

Infection – Green iguana Iguana iguana with loss of limb proprioceptive deficits secondary to fourth cervical vertebra osteomyelitis.

Neuropathic – Green iguana Iguana iguana with loss of limb proprioceptive deficits secondary to 4^th cervical vertebra osteomyelitis.

Congenital – Nine cases (in total) of dicephalic specimens of the snakes Elaphe vulpina

(NMNH50.003), Lampropeltis getula (NMNH 21.164), Natrix sipedon (NMNH 38.045, MCZ 7.043), Bothrops atrox [MCZ 14.103, Instituto de Butantan (Brazil) 3.109, 3.110], and Crotalus terrificus [Instituto de Butantan (Brazil)3.101].

Trauma – Chameleon with spheroidal osseous swelling on ribs interpreted as probable fracture, although tuberculosis also considered.

Infection – Chameleon with spheroidal osseous swelling on ribs interpreted as probable fracture, although tuberculosis also considered.

Congenital – Derodymous Lycodon aulicus and dicephalic Naja tripudians.

Congenital – Extrauterine eggs in a North American box turtle and supernumerary scutes.

Shell disease – Pits in North American box turtle.

Congenital Supernumerary scutes in Florida box turtles Terrapene carolina bauri.

Shell disease – 6.5% of Florida box turtles Terrapene carolina bauri with pits.

Congenital – Dicephalic common ringed or grass snake.

Congenital – Galapagos tortoise from Zurich zoo with “congenital carapax anomaly.”

Metabolic – Galapagos tortoise from Zurich zoo with metabolic bone disease.

Vertebral – Dorsal vertebral fusion in Plioplatecarpus marshi compatible with congenital or spondyloarthropathy etiology.

Fossil – Dorsal vertebral fusion in Plioplatecarpus marshi compatible with congenital or spondyloarthropathy etiology.

Vertebral – Ankylosis of 10th and 11th vertebrae in Hainosaurus.

Fossil – Ankylosis of 10th and 11th vertebrae in Hainosaurus.

Vertebral – Vertebral fusion in Plioplatecarpus-types.

Fossil – Vertebral fusion in Plioplatecarpus-types.

Neoplasia – Enchondroma in Indian monitor Varanus dracaena (Jacobson 1981; Machotka 1984).

Osteochondroma in Varanus bengalensis (Frye 1991 in Frye)

Osteosarcoma in emerald lizard Lacerta viridis (Machotka 1984)

Chondro-osteofibroma in rhinoceros iguana Cyclura cornuta (Jacobson 1981; Machotka 1984).

Osteosarcoma in Burmese python Python molurus bivittatus

(Frye 1991 in Frye) and in rufous-beaded snake Rhamphiophis rostratus (Machotka 1984).

Osteochondrosarcoma in black cobra Naja melanoleuca (Machotka and Whitney 1980).

Chondrosarcoma in corn snake Elaphe guttata (Harshbarger 1974).

Metabolic – Ameiva spine fracture from hyperparathyroidism.

Red-tailed boa Eryx conicus with osteitis deformans – Actually a proliferative spine calcification.

Other – Red-tailed boa Eryx conicus with proliferative spine calcification.

Infection – American toad Bufo americanus with Mycobacterium marinum destruction of tibiotarsal joint and cervical vertebrae.

Congenital – Box turtle and Geochelone sulcata with deformed carapace.

Trauma – Chamaeleo deremensis with fractures radius and ulna.

Iguana iguana with limb fracture.

Standings day gecko Phelsuma standingii with tail loss.

Metabolic – Bearded dragon Pagona vitticeps with deformed carpus and scoliosis secondary to nutritional hyperparathyroidism.

Stone – Urinary calculi related to excess vitamin D, vitamin C, calcium, sodium, phosphorus, or magnesium, low moisture in food, urine retention, abnormal excretion of calcium, sodium, phosphorus, and to pH abnormalities: acidic producing calcium oxalate stones and alkaline producing calcium phosphate stones.

Congenital – Dicephalic snake Vipera (Pelias) berus.

Congenital – Dicephalic snake.

Metabolic – Vitamin A content of mice and rats – suggested as pertinent to argument as to induction of hypervitaminosis A in amphibians and reptiles.

Trauma – Autotomy as a major predator escape mechanism in 13 of 20 lizard families. Fourteen percent of 66 consumed Lampropholis guichenoti lost tails prior to being eaten, contrasted with 56% of 9 uneaten tailless lizards.

Congenital – Dicephalic common garter snake.

Neoplasia – Tracheal obstruction by chondromas in ball python Python regius, but no bone involvement.

Congenital – Bradymely, syndactyly, polydactyly, brachydactyly, clinodactyly and supernumerary claws in Xenopus laevis offspring, but not from heterozygous crosses.

Congenital – Bent tail as lethal recessive mutation in Xenopus laevis.

Congenital – Suggests that anomalies are not hereditary. In Champdieu, he noted Rana esculenta 6–8 polydactyly frequencies as follows:

• 
  
  1950 – 1.4% of 70 specimens
  
  
• 
  
  1951 – 1.7% of 960 specimens
  
  
• 
  
  1952 – 4.6% of 238 specimens
  
  
• 
  
  1964 – 0.2% of 835 specimens
  
  
• 
  
  1965 – 0% of 120 specimens
  
  
• 
  
  1966 – 3.2% of 597 specimens

Congenital – A benign mass polydactyly, occasionally linked with a clinodactyly due to hyperphalangy, is described in a population of young Rana graeca (9% of 553 specimens with polydactyly, 2.9% bilateral; clinodactyly predominantly unilateral and affected posterior elements) in former Yugoslavia (Montenegro) and in a population of Bufo bufo (24.9% of 185 specimens with polydactyly; 25% of 32 specimens with clinodactyly) in the Paris area.

Congenital – Cross of female Rana temporaria with normal produced 50% hypophalanges, symphalanges, prachyphalanges, syndactylies, ectodactylies and clinodactylies as dominant mutation.

Congenital – Allegedly non-congenital polymely, polydactyly, clindactyly and syndactyly in Rana “esculenta.”

Congenital – Retention of Bombina variegate forearm under skin, similar to Litoria aurea (Richardson and Barwick 1957) and Bufo bufo (actually, recurved, saber-like forelimb; animal also retained its tail – a partial neoteny). (Olivier 1893) and cited ectodactyly in amphibians (Dubois 1974, 1977; Rostand 1958).

Congenital – General review of anomalies:

Trevignon from 1949–1967 had 0–80% larval anomalies and 2.6–14.5 in adult Rana esculenta; Champdieu, 1950–1976 – 0–3.2% and 0–6.3%;

Linge 1961–1970 – 14–70%.

Polydactyly in Champdieu, Loire France, Switzerland, Linge, Indre France, Amsterdam Low country, Saint-Philbert-de-Grand-Lieu, Loire Atlantic France, Kenitra Marocco, Voronezh USSR, Greece, Poland, north of Low country, East Germany.

Luxeuil-les-Bains Haute-Saone france – 1/296

Faverois, Territoire-de-Belfort France – 1/76

Fenetrange Moselle, France – 7/109

Tassenierees Jura France – 3/80

Other examples in Rana lessonae, Rana perezi, Rana ribidunda, Hyla arborea, Bufo bufo, Triturus helveticus, Triturus cristatus, Chioglossa lusitanica, Ambystoma tigrinum, Rana pipens, Ambystoma maculatum, Rana ridibunda, Salamandra salamandra, Hyla regilla.

Congenital – Ectodactyly in 1 of 121 Leptodactylus pentadactylus labyrinthicus.

Congenital – Polydactyly in Rana iberica.

Congenital – Ectodactyly in 1–2% of Rana temporaria from Hennezel and polydactyly in one of 65 from Vesinet (Yvelines).

Congenital – Rana temporaria – ectodactyly in 14/21 crosses of an ectodactylic with normal. Thus apparently autosomal dominant.

Congenital – Ectodactyly (14%), syndactyly, and clinodactyly in Rana temporaria.

Posterior ectodactyly in 15% of offspring of affected Rana temporaria.

Trauma – Presence of tails facilitated Eurycea bislineata survival of attacks by garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis, as permitted autotomy. 25/109 tailed had autotomy, with 17 escaping (15.6% of tailed, 68% of those autotomizing).

Trauma – Bolitoglossa rostrata and rufescens autotomize more frequently (85–90%) than Bolitoglossa subpalmata (3%). Hubbard (2003) suggested that propensity for salamander tail autotomy was inversely related to effectiveness of their toxin.

Congenital – Kyphotic Lissemys punctata punctata.

Trauma – Tail readily breaks in Dendrophidion dendrophis.

Congenital – Reduction of number of digits in fore- and hind limbs in Chamaesaura anguina from three to two or one digit. Retrogressive evolution in the genus from Chamaesaura aenea (five digits) to Chamaesaura macrolepis (no forelimb, one digit in hind limb).

Trauma – Reported short tail in lizards (e.g., Lacerta), noting regeneration produces single cartilage section, not bone. Reported several lizards with two or three tails.

Congenital – Occasional failure of intervertebral spheres to unite with the center, resulting in the amphicoelous (ancestral) condition persistence to maturity in Pelobates cultripes.

Shell disease – Fifty percent of loggerhead and 25% of Kemp’s Ridley turtles had dermatomycotic scutes, sometimes ulcerating underlying bone.

Congenital – Pelobates cultripes with polymely, and Rana temporaria, Rana clamata, Rana viridis and Rana esculenta with supernumerary limbs, noting Thomas’ 1861 observation of supernumerary limb in Rana esculenta (which Dumeril published in 1865).

Congenital – Supernumary limb in Pelobates cultripes, Rana temporaria, Rana viridis, Rana clamata and Polymelia in Pygomeles.

Congenital – Polymelia in Pelobates cultripes, Rana temporaria and Rana viridis.

Congenital – “Mutilated” Axolotl. Right forefoot is short and left tarsals are “defective.”

Congenital – Polydactyly and melomelia in Ambystoma argus.

Congenital – Pelobates cultripes with polymely, and Rana temporaria, Rana clamata, Rana viridis, and Rana esculenta with supernumerary limbs.

Congenital – Supernumerary limbs or doubling of trunk portions.

Cites dicephalic serpent reports by Aritstole, d’Aldrovandi, de Rédi, Geoffroy, and Mitchill (1925).

Toxicology – 0.0004 ppm Methylmercury chloride-induced bent tails, supernumerary forelimb and femoral-tibial joint abnormality in plantana Xenopus laevis.

Congenital – Supernumerary leg in green toad Bufo viridis.

Vascular – The ventral skin of soft shelled turtle has a rich blood vessel network, allowing respiratory function.

Pharyngeal respiration was almost as effective as respiratory in Gulf Coast soft-shelled turtle Trionyx spinifer asper, which had less effective dermal respiration.

Pseuodpathology – The folk of Venezuela refer to the Amphisbaena as two-headed snakes, but these are in fact in the Sauria and are not snakes at all, and are known as two-headed because their tail resembles their head, not because of dicephalism.

Congenital – Report of dicephalic Mapanare Bothrops atrox (L.) (Science Museum of Caracas, Venezuela No. 365, with photograph and review of dicephalic snake cases reported by Do Amaral (1927).

Trauma – Regenerative process in Rana clamitans replaces ½ to 2/3 of tail.

Congenital – Dicephalic snakes, lizards, Salamandra salamandra (one larva with only one eye) and Rana fusca.

Supernumerary legs in urodeles and frogs. “Anomalies” of legs and shell in Emys europaea.

Trauma – Double tails in lizards.

Congenital – Derodymous Tropidonotus natrix and tortoise.

Frog with extremity loss, probably from trauma.

Trauma – Frog with extremity loss, probably from trauma.

Congenital – Often cited in herpetology literature, but actually human Siamese twins, with no report of herpetologic cases.

Congenital – Trionyx gangeticus with imperfect acetabulum (convex, rather than concave) lacking right hind limb.

Comments on Reichenow (1908) Rana esculenta with missing leg and another with three legs and a third with four legs. Row (1916) describes absent first digit in Rana temporaria.

Trauma – Emyda granosa lacking right foreleg (with proximal portion manifest as small nodule).

Congenital – Seventy five percent of Jemez Mountains salamander Plethodon neomexicanus had phalangeal formula atypical for what was “once considered characteristic of this species.” Two thirds had 1–2–3–3–2, ¼ had 1–2–3–3–1.The following were also found: 1–2–3–2–2, 1–2–2–2–2, 1–2–3–2, and 1–2–2–1. Eighteen percent had fusion of ulnare and intermedium. One had fusion of ulnare, intermedium, and centrale. Distal tarsals 4 and 5; distals 1,2, and 3; and tibial and centrale 1 fusion were reported.

Congenital – Pelvic duplication (Lopez, Maxson 1990, Reynold, Stephens 1984, Sessions, Ruth 1990).

Ninety percent of supernumerary limbs are hind limbs in North America (Meyer-Rochow, Modzelewski, Koebke 1986), while extra forelimbs are more common in Europe (Flindt et al. 1968) and in long-toed salamander Ambystoma macrodactylum in California, equally distributed (Sessions, Ruth 1990).

Recessive and dominant alterations in African clawed frog Xenopus laevis and axolotl Ambystoma mexicanumn (Graveson, Armstrong 1994, Gurdon, Woodland 1975, Humphrey 1967, Lipsett 1941, Malacinski, Brothers 1974, Uelhinger 1966, Washabaugh et al. 2005).

35.5% of male and 20.5% of female Triturus cristatus carnifex had missing digits (less than half due to trauma), supernumerary phalanges and digits, fused carpals, atrophied and distorted phalanges, and a bent radius and ulna in a newt.

2.26% of Japanese firebelly newt Cyunops pyrrhogaster had supernumerary libs, digits or tails, or missing limbs or digits (Meyer-Rochow, Asashima 1988) 60% of one population of Western slimy salamander Plethodon albagula in Texas had syndactyly, forked digit or carpal, and digit duplication (Lazell 1995).

Spindly leg, aka match(-stick) legs (from Steichholzbeinchen in German) and luciferpootjes in Dutch in dendrobatids, oriental firebelly toad Bombina orientalis, orange-legged leaf frog Phyllomedusa hypocondrialis and painted frog Discoglossus pictus, manifest as absence of bones distal to humeri and maldeveloped humeri and carpal-metacarpal joints (Hakvoort et al. 1995).

Trauma – 35.5% of male and 20.5% of female Triturus cristatus carnifex had missing digits (less than half due to trauma).

2.26% of Japanese firebelly newt Cyunops pyrrhogaster had supernumerary tails or missing limbs or digits (Meyer-Rochow, Asashima 1988).

Metabolic – Periarticular gout in pixie frog Pixicephalus delalandii, manifest as swollen forelimb digit.

Hypervitaminosis A may produce osteoporosis, multiple fractures and mandibular protrusion (Bruce, Parkes 1950).

Feeding African clawed frog Xenopus laevis low calcium or high phosphorus diets produces mandibular protrusion and humpback deformity.

Environmental – Yeast feeding or deionized water environment produced forelimb deformities in African clawed frog Xenopus laevis (Pollack, Leibig 1989).

Ammonium nitrates in fertilizer produce bent tails in American toad Bufo americanus, Western chorus frog Pseudacris triseriata and northern leopard frog Rana pipiens.

Congenital – Summarizes deformity levels in 21,000 wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) from three ecoregions of Western Canada. Frequency of less than 2% were found of polymely, polyphalangy, ectomely, and amely, relating them to physical trauma, with “dramatic deformities… recorded more often than… deformed digits.”

Trauma – Summarizes deformity levels in 21,000 wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) from three ecoregions of Western Canada. Frequency of less than 2% was found of polymely, polyphalangy, ectomely, and amely, relating them to physical trauma, with “dramatic deformities… recorded more often than… deformed digits.” Curiously, abstract identical to that of Blaustein and Johnson (2003).

Environmental – 1997 Lake Champlain Basin of Vermont sampling revealed 2–

45.4% northern leopard frog abnormalities (Fort et al. 1999).

Malformations were noted in 22/89 abnormal frogs, of which 14 had calcium deficiency. Malformed included 10 from Great Bay, New Hampshire, 8 from Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia, 8 from Great Swamp, New Jersey, 3 from Iroquois, New York, 24 from Missisquoi, Vermont, 14 from Patuxent, Maryland, 19 from Rachel Carson, Maine and 7 from Wallkill River, New Jersey.

Dental – Cites Bellairs and Miles (1960) report of possible failure of varanid tooth replacement in an aged individual and offers possibility of just failure of ankylosis, since this phenomena was seen only after maceration.

Congenital – Dicephalic common English snake; only mouth separate in yellow snake of Barbados. Carolina tortoise with partial duplication of skull (laterally fused, but with separate eyes).

Trauma – Two great spotted Jamaican lizards Lacerta major and Lacerta cinereus maculatus with bifid tails.

Congenital – Note that the Busdanensis biceps means dicephalic snake.

Neoplasia – Neurofibrosarcoma of spine in Korean viper Agkristrodon halys brevicaudus.

Metabolic – General comments on vitamin D, calcium metabolism, rickets and accelerated growth, noting formation of bumps in Geochelone sulcata, and attributed irregular growth in Testudo hermanni to rich food.

Shell disease – Carapace pits in Egyptian tortoise Testudo kleinmanni.

Carapace shortening. Carapace defects were illustrated but not explained.

Trauma – Regenerated left hind leg of Lacerta vivipara.

Pseudopathology – Paleopathology: author discusses examples of alleged pachyostosis in Mesosaurus, Stereosternum [Mesosauria], Pachypleura [= nothsaur Pachypleurosaurus], Proneusticosaurus [nothosaurid], Eidolosaurus [varanoid], and Pachyophis [snake].

Fossil – Paleopathology: author discusses examples of alleged pachyostosis in Mesosaurus, Stereosternum [Mesosauria], Pachypleura [= nothsaur Pachypleurosaurus], Proneusticosaurus [nothosaurid], Eidolosaurus [varanoid], and Pachyophis [snake].

Congenital – Rana pipiens with supernumerary arm on the right side.

Congenital – Dicephalic turtle.

Congenital – Swamp frog Rana arvalis with abnormal sacral vertebra diapophyses #8 and 9, ilio-ischium and urostyle of unclear etiology.

Trauma – Swamp frog Rana arvalis with femur thickening and cystoid changes, suggesting fracture and osteochondromatous metaplasia.

Neoplasia – Swamp frog Rana arvalis with femur thickening and cystoid changes, suggesting fracture and osteochondromatous metaplasia.

Trauma – Two deep diagonal gouges with well-defined edges on plesiosaurian

propodial in Department of Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, Lund University, Lund Sweden LO10602, attributed to mosasaur Dollosaurus (which has latero-posterior marginal tooth crowns with strong posterior carina and a blade-like lateral profile).

Cited polycotylid digested by Tylosaurus (Everhart 2004; Sternberg 1922).

Fossil – Two deep diagonal gouges with well-defined edges on plesiosaurian propodial in Department of Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, Lund University, Lund Sweden LO10602, attributed to mosasaur Dollosaurus (which has latero-posterior marginal tooth crowns with strong posterior carina and a blade-like lateral profile).

Cited polycotylid digested by Tylosaurus (Everhart 2004; Sternberg 1922)

Environmental – PCB-induced mortality, without discussing skeletal changes.

Trauma – Healing pelvis and elbow fracture in Ceratophrys ornata.

Trauma – Ankylosis of pelvis and right elbow after comminuted fracture in

Ceratophrys ornata.

Trauma – Tail regeneration was proportional to amount removed in Rana clamitans.

Environmental – Hot-incubated scincid lizard Bassiana duperreyi had longer tails than those cold-incubated, with difference manifest for at least the first 6 weeks of life.

Congenital – Dicephalic ?Texas rattle snake ?Crotalus atrox observing that; most malformed snakes do not live long.

Congenital – Dicephalic western diamondback Crotalus atrox.

Neoplasia – Bones in fifth pedal digit is replaced by a circular-shaped growth in Alligator mississippiensis. X-ray image is not sufficiently clear for further comment.

Infection – Septic arthritis of knee in Fiji Island iguana Brachylophus fasciatus with associated osteomyelitis.

Congenital – Dicephalic snakes (Tropidonotus, Vipera, Zamenis, Coluber, Coronella, etc.), lizards, and turtles.

Emys orbicularis specimen with double nuchal plate and duplication of anterior head (two nasal openings on left side, none on right, separated mouth slits.

Trauma – Regeneration of legs and tail in Lissamphibia.

Congenital – Review of literature on polydactyly, melomelia, and polymelia in reptiles and amphibians, suggesting that fusion of two developing embryos and abnormally excessive regeneration produce the anomalies.

Reported the following:

1)Rana esculenta with two feet in the left leg, and with ten digits. It was missing the right leg when purchased at a market, and hence it was unknown if the latter was abnormal. 2)Two specimens of Rana esculenta with three left forelimbs each. 3)Rana esculenta with three right forelimbs. 4)Triton taeniatus with an extra left leg. It possessed a very thick thigh, and from its medial side to the knee region, protruded an accessory limb that ended in two feet. 5)Rana esculenta with extra, gracile leg that hangs freely from the pubic region.

Trauma – Fractures, punctures, and plastic deformities, most with healing, in Leidosuchus.

Shell – Perforation and scars in posterior carapace (especially of snapping turtle

Protochelydra from the Paleocene of North Dakota associated with Leidosuchus teeth).

Fossil – Fractures, punctures, and plastic deformities, most with healing, in Leidosuchus.

Perforation and scars in posterior carapace (especially of snapping turtle

Protochelydra from the Paleocene of North Dakota associated with Leidosuchus teeth).

Trauma – Paleocene crocodile Leidyosuchus formidabilis suggested as responsible for wounds with puncture wounds on posterior and posterodorsal carapace surfaces with thickened bone in Protochelydra, a trionychid and “at least two other forms.”

Shell – Reported Carpenter and Lindsey (1980) suggestion for Cretaceous alligator Brachychampsa of responsible for etched/pitted turtle shell, although suggested that these may have been ingested as stomach stones.

Fossil – Paleocene crocodile Leidyosuchus formidabilis suggested as responsible for wounds with puncture wounds on posterior and posterodorsal carapace surfaces with thickened bone in Protochelydra, a trionychid and “at least two other forms.”

Reported Carpenter and Lindsey (1980) suggestion for Cretaceous alligator Brachychampsa of responsible for etched/pitted turtle shell, although suggested that these may have been ingested as stomach stones.

Trauma – Webb and Manolis (1989) reported shattered teeth (also noted by Erickson in 98% of Alligator mississippiensis also noting toothless alveoli in 70% of wild-caught, as well as puncture marks. Pooley (1962) reported teeth ripped out of sockets. While trauma is suspected in toothless alveoli, Erickson found that only 10 of 234 (4.3% could be directly attributed to cranial injuries.

Dental – Localized toothlessness occurs when replacement teeth formation ceases (Auffenberg 1988; Bellairs and Miles 1960; Mertens 1959). This is common in crocodilians (Bellairs and Miles 1960; Neill 1971; Poole 1961) rare in lepidosaurs (Bellairs and Miles 1960, 1961; Edmund 1969). Nearly toothless crocodilians reported by Neill (1971). Tornier (1911), Bellairs and Miles (1960), Bellairs (1970) and Guggisberg (1972) suggested this limited to captives, but Hall (1985) documented toothlessness in wild Crocodylus novaeguinae and Webb and Manolis (1989), Poole (1961), and Neill (1971) in Crocodylus porosus. Kälin (1937) suggested this is a phenomenon of old age, while Hall (1985) reported edentulous alveolar in subadults. Webb and Manolis (1989) reported shattered teeth (also noted by Erickson in 98% of Alligator mississippiensis also noting toothless alveoli in 70% of wild-caught, as well as puncture marks… Pooley (1962) reported teeth ripped out of sockets. While trauma is suspected in toothless alveoli, Erickson found that only 10 of 234 (4.3% could be directly attributed to cranial injuries.

Trauma – Late Oligocene estuarine crocodile Gavialosuchus carolinensis SCSM (South Carolina State Museum) 90.93.1 with 4 tibial punctures (with midshaft fistula)) and 2 fibular gouges. Both were angulated, suggesting healed fracture, apparently from a conspecific. Possible bite marks on right distal humerus, right distal metatarsal 1, 2 osteoscutes and ribs. Lateral spines of two dorsal vertebrae had healed fractures, as did metatarsal V. Type specimen ChM (Charleston Museum) PV 4279 had coracoid fracture causing thickening probably related to overlap.

Fossil – Late Oligocene estuarine crocodile Gavialosuchus carolinensis SCSM (South Carolina State Museum) 90.93.1 with 4 tibial punctures (with midshaft fistula)) and 2 fibular gouges. Both were angulated, suggesting healed fracture, apparently from a conspecific. Possible bite markes on right distal humerus, right distal metatarsal 1, 2 osteoscutes and ribs. Lateral spines of two dorsal vertebrae had healed fractures, as did metatarsal V. Type specimen ChM (Charleston Museum) PV 4279 had coracoid fracture causing thickening probably related to overlap.

Congenital – Dicephalic northern water snake Natrix s. sipedon and eastern garter snake Thamnophis s. sirtalis attached at gular region.

Congenital – Dicephalic Thamnophis sirtalis.

Congenital – Dichocephalic Lampropeltis doliata triangulum and in Natrix s. sipedon (Ernst 1960), citing 6 cases in 700,000 snakes in Institute Butantan records (Belloumini 1949), Meyer (1958), Triplehorn (1955) – Storeria dekayi with two bodies, Steward (1961), Curry-Lindahl (1963), Klauber (1956), Neill (1960).

Congenital – Kyphosis in Chrysemys picta and Clemmys guttata.

Trauma – 40% of nesting female loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta had wounds, possibly from sharks.

Olive Ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea with wounded shells and amputated limbs.

11.9% of male and 15% of female spotted turtle Clemmys guttata with amputated limbs, tails, and damaged shells.

31% of Blanding’s turtle Emydoidea blandingii had injuries or missing body parts.

60% of adults and 28.6% of juvenile wood turtle Glyptemys insculpts had wounds in Ontrario, contrasting with 9% in Pennsylvania

Shell injury from alligator in ringed map turtle Graptemys nigrinoda.

12% of female and 8% of male diamond-backed terrapin Macaclemys terrapin had missing limbs from predator attacks

Trauma – Functional autotomy may disappear from progressive replacement of cartilaginous septum with bone, starting in posterior region of tail, from top of neural arch, extending through septum. This may be so extensive in Iguana iguana as to leave tail totally non-autotomic.

Production of a cartilage rod may occur in lizards without fracture planes, e.g., in Brachylophus fasciatus and Agama agama and Caiman crocodilus.

Autotomic (fracture plane) vertebrae in Gekkonidae and Pygopodidae (Lucasius, Cnemaspis, Uroplatus, Nephrurus laevis, Stenodactylus sthenodactylus, and Ceramodactylus doriae are restricted to the 2 or 3 vertebrae without processes. Nephrurus asper had no septa.). Dibamidae and Anelytropsidae septae are in front of process bases. The first caudal vertebrae of Dibamus argenteus and the first five of Anelytropsis are non-autotomic. The first five or six of Xantusiidae are non-autotomic. Autotomic septa in Iguanidae are behind the bases in Callisaurus, Chalarodon, Ctenoblepharis, Crotaphytus, Gambelia, Cupriguanus, Halbrookia, Leiocephalus, Liolaemus, Morunasaurus, Ophryoessoides, Oplurus, Petrosaurus, Phrynosaura, Phymaturus, Platynota, Plica, Prototretus, Sator, Sceloporus, Stenocercus, Strobilurus, Tropidurus, Uma, Urosaurus, and Uta. Non-autotomic was noted in Crotaphytus, Hoplocercus, Leiosaurus, Phrysoma, and Uracentron. Non-autotomic never more than one-fourth of caudal vertebrae. Autotomic in some Anolis (septum in front of processes) and all Corythophanes, Phenacosaurus, Chamaeleolis, Basiliscus, Laemanctus, Enyalius, Enyalioides, Polychrus, Polychroides, Urostrophus, and Uranoscodon. Septum in Basiliscus, Enyalioides, and Uranoscodon is posterior. There is no autotomy in Phenacosaurus, Chamaeleolis, Corythophanes, Laemanctus, Enyalius, Polychrus, Polychroides, Urostrophus, and somne Anolis. Autotomy is lacking in Chamaelinorops, Anisolepis, and Aptycholaemus.

Fractures in Iguana iguana, Ctenosaura, Cyclura, Enyaliosaurus, Sauromalus, and Dipsosaurus occurs between processes. Iguana delicatissimja, Conolophus, Amblyrhynchus, and Brachylophus are non-autotomic. Autotomy does not occur in agamids, although the vertebrae are fragile. Autotomy septa were present in all Teiidae vertebrae. In Lacertidae, Cordylidae, and Gerrhosauridae, septum is between the processes. In Scincidae, the fracture plane is through the transverse processes. Brachylophus and some Acontias, Mabuya, and Emoia have septum anterior to the processes; Chalcides, Ophiomorus, and Egernia depressa, posterior. Anguids Diploglossus monotropus, and Sauresia sepsoides differ by having skink type autotomy. Autotomy occurs in all Anguidae, Anniellidae, and Feyliniidae, except Ophisaurus apodus and compressus. Autotomy does not occur in Helodermatidae, Xenosauridae, Lanthanotidae, and Varanidae. The compressed tail of Dracaena, prehensile tail of Abronia, and Ophisaurus are autotomous.

Fracture planes are present in Sphenodon and Jurassic rhynchocephalians Homoeosaurus and Sapheosaurus (Price 1940), Gekkonidae, Pygopodidae, Dibamidae, Anelytropsidae, Xantusiidae, Feyliniidae, Cordylidae, Gerrhosauridae, Lacdertidae, Teiidae, and Anniellidae, almost all Anguidae and Scincidae. They are absent in Agamidae, Chamaeleontidae, Xenosauridae, Helodermatidae, Varanidae, and Lanthanotidae.

Tail fragility was found in Scaphiodontophis and Sibynophis, and the unrelated Pliocercus.

Frequency of lost tails in nature were:

• 
  
  50% of male and 35% of female Sceloporus olivaceous (Blair 1960)
  
  
• 
  
  50% of Takydromus septentrionalis (Boring et al. 1948)
  
  
• 
  
  33% of Gekko swinhonis (Boring et al, 1948)
  
  
• 
  
  72% of Uta stansburiana hesperis
  
  
• 
  
  45% of Sceloporus occidentalis
  
  
• 
  
  31% of Dipsosaurus dorsalis
  
  
• 
  
  30% of Sator grandavus

Mutilated tails were found in colubrid subfamily Sibynophbinae (Taylor 1954; Taylor and Elbel 1958).

Fossil – Fracture planes are present in Jurassic rhynchocephalians Homoeosaurus and Sapheosaurus (Price 1940).

Trauma – Seven percent of 3,000 Lower Jurassic eosuchian Gephyrosaurus bridensis jaw fragments have “in vivo damage.” Fracture with callus and tooth row/meckelian fossa malignment was illustrated.

Dental – Lower Jurassic eosuchian Gephyrosaurus bridensis jaw with tooth row/meckelian fossa malignment were illustrated.

Fossil – Seven percent of 3,000 Lower Jurassic eosuchian Gephyrosaurus bridensis jaw fragments have “in vivo damage.” Fracture with callus and tooth row/meckelian fossa malignment was illustrated.

Lower Jurassic eosuchian Gephyrosaurus bridensis jaw with tooth row/meckelian fossa malignment were illustrated.

Trauma – Cretoxyrhina mantelli tooth marks on mosasaur bones with partially digested bones and preserved stomach contents.

Fossil – Cretoxyrhina mantelli tooth marks on mosasaur bones with partially digested bones and preserved stomach contents.

Trauma – Gastroliths in elasmosaurs with arc-shaped markings caused by 2–5 mm conchoidal fractures of the chest with varying degrees of wear.

Fossil – Gastroliths in elasmosaurs with arc-shaped markings caused by 2–5 mm conchoidal fractures of the chert with varying degrees of wear.

Trauma – Serrated teeth marks on marine reptiles (Bardet et al. 1998; Schwimmer et al. 1997).

Protostega shell and limbs with bite marks and embedded teeth attributed to Cretoxyrhina mantelli Fort Hays State University Museum FHSM VP-2158 (Shamida and Hooks 2004).

Bite marks attributed to Squalicorax sp. on Toxychelys? LA County LACM 50974 humerus, Toxychelys Fort Hays FHSM VP 13449 with posterior aspect missing, Dermatochelys lowi University of Kansas KUVP 32401 and 32405 humeri, Protostega University of Wisconsin-Madison 1503.57 humerus and a Toxychelys FHSM VP 13449 with posterior aspect missing.

Mosasaurus conodon skull with bites marks and a conspecific tooth embedded in left quadrate (Bell and Martin 1995).

Tylosaurus sp. FHSM VP-2295 with bite marks across top of skull and lower jaw.

Mosasaur FHSM VP-13283 articulated vertebrate series with two embedded shark teeth (Everhart 1999; Shimada 1997, p. 928 Figure 4).

Partially digested mosasaur bones FHSM VP-13283 with embedded shark teeth (Everhart 1999), suggesting they were severed by a shark bite.

Vascular – Plesiosaur Elasmosaurus platyurus Philadelphia Academy of Sciences ANSP 10081 with apparent proximal humeral and femoral irregularities suggestive of avascular necrosis.

Vertebral – Fusion of C1 and C2 in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences plesiosaur Elasmosaurus platyurus ANSP 10081, suggestive of spondyloarthropathy.

Other – Bumps on inferior aspect of mandible of polycotylid plesiosaur Trinacromerum (bentonianum) willistoni KUVP 5070.

Fossil – Serrated teeth marks on marine reptiles (Bardet et al. 1998; Schwimmer et al. 1997).

Protostega shell and limbs with bite marks and embedded teeth attributed to Cretoxyrhina mantelli Fort Hays State University Museum FHSM VP- 2158 (Shamida and Hooks, 2004).

Bite marks attributed to Squalicorax sp. on Toxychelys? LA County LACM 50974 humerus, Toxychelys Fort Hays FHSM VP 13449 with posterior aspect missing, Dermatochelys lowi University of Kansas KUVP 32401 and 32405 humeri, Protostega University of Wisconsin-Madison 1503.57 humerus and a Toxychelys FHSM VP 13449 with posterior aspect missing.

Mosasaurus conodon skull with bites marks and a conspecific tooth embedded in left quadrate (Bell and Martin 1995).

Tylosaurus sp. FHSM VP-2295 with bite marks across top of skull and lower jaw.

Mosasaur FHSM VP-13283 articulated vertebrate series with two embedded shark teeth (Everhart 1999; Shimada 1997, p. 928 Figure 4).

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Related posts:

1. Bibliography H-L
2. Bibliography M-N
3. Frequently Cited in Discussion of Amphibian and/or Reptile Pathology but which do not Discuss Actual Amphibian or Reptile Abnormalities
4. List of Fossil Taxa

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