Leptotyphlopidae Leptotyphlops

Uropeltidae Brachyophidium, Melanophidium, Platyplecturus, Plectrurus, Rhinophis, Uropeltis

Aniliidae Anilius, Cylindrophis

Xenopeltidae Xenopeltis

Boidae Clavaria, Enygrus, Eryx, Eunectes, Lichanura, Sanzinia, Trachyboa, Tropidophis

Colubridae Ahaetulla, Dasypeltis, Duberria, Elachistodon, Malpolon, Psammophylax, Thrasops

Hydrophiidae Lapemis?, Laticauda

Elaphidae Micrurus

Viperidae Crotalus

Amphisbaenidae Blanus

Typhlopidae Helminthopsis, Typhlops

Amphisbaenidae Amphisbaena, Ancyclocranium, Anops, Aulura, Baikia, Bipes canaliculatus, Bronia, Cadea blanoides, Cadea palirostrata, Chirindia, Cynisca, Geocalamus, Leposternon, Loveridgea, Mesobaena, Monopeltis, Rhineura, Tomuropeltis, Zygaspis

Trophonophidae Agamodon, Diplometopon, Pachycolamus, Trogonophis

Typhlopidae Anomalepis, Liotyphlops

Boidae Acrantophis, Aspidiotes, Boa, Bothrochilus, Charina, Corallus, Epicrates, Liasis, Python

Bolyeridae Casarea

Amphisbaenidae Bipes biporus

Trauma – Regeneration of difficult to break tail in Sphenodon punctatus produces cartilaginous tube, calcified on outer and inner surfaces and divided by union of those surfaces in one or two places.

Metabolic – Feeding Leopard gecko Eublepharis macularius non-supplemented crickets and Madagascar giant day gecko Phelsuma madagascariensis and even calcium-supplemented crickets resulted in bone demineralization and secondary hyperparathyroidism.

Metabolic – Most reptiles excrete nitrogen predominantly as uric acid; aqueous reptiles, urea (aquatic turtles) or ammonia (sea turtles and crocodilians).

Trauma – Fractures in Komodo dragons Varanus komodoensis may be related to vitamin D deficiency.

Metabolic – Fractures in Komodo dragons Varanus komodoensis may be related to vitamin D deficiency.

Trauma – No effect of tail autotomy on survivorship and body growth of Uta stansburiana under conditions of high mortality.

Metabolic – Osteomalacia in Philippine lizard, Hydrosaurus pustulatus responding to vitamin B and ultraviolet radiation.

Congenital – Scoliosis, kyphosis in Rana perezi.

Metabolic – Aplasia related to captive Rana perezi dietary deficiencies.

Toxicology – Carbamate insecticides produce scoliosis, short and thick long bones and twisted epiphyses in Rana perezi. Organophosphate Folidol and carbamate insecticide ZZ-Aphox produce scoliosis, joint rigidity, and shortening of rear limbs. Cartilage staining with alcian blue was slight or absent with irregular small stained spots, contrasted with normal intensive blue staining. Long bones were shortened, thickened, with twisted epiphyses (mimics rickets); ilium and coccyx, twisted. Vertebral pathology included variable orientation, length and thickness of lateral apophyses and variable dorsal arch width, nonossified vertebral closure. External bone surface was porous, with striations and small cavities. He states that spinal lesions were similar to those of lathyrism.

Congenital – Two of 12 specimens of Leptodactylus ocellatus (L.) collected in Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1966, had anomalous limbs. One possessed an extra right forelimb, and the other lacked its right forelimb. Both specimens were still young, and neither appeared impaired due to its anomalies. Amaro and Sena remarked that they decided to report this because of the apparent rarity of the occurrence of anomalous limbs in representatives of the Leptodactylae, Hylidae, Bufonidae, and Brachycephalidae from several regions of Brazil. In a previous study, they examined more than a million individuals of these families in Brazil and found no other anomalous specimens. They also searched the literature and found only one reference (Miller 1968). The specimens described were stored in alcohol in Amaro and Sena’s personal collection. Photographs of the two specimens were provided in page 95.

Congenital – Description of ventrolateral thoracopagus of Lacerta agilis and a tailless embryo.

Metabolic – Osteopenia with fibrous osteodystrophy, osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and pathologic fractures in iguanas.

Metabolic – Low calcium diet produces secondary hyperparathyroidism with osteoclastic and osteocytic osteolysis in Iguana iguana.

Metabolic – Low calcium diet producing nutritional osteodystrophy with osteopenia and diaphyseal enlargement of long bones and fractures in Iguana iguana.

Congenital – Dicephalism and kinks in 7.7% of Bothrops moojeni.

Congenital – Dicephalic black rat snake Elaphe o. obsoleta.

Fossil – Mid-maxilla of Upper Eocene crocodilian Crocodilus anticeps BMNH C10036 with expanded smooth excavated area in tooth row and bite marks on superior surface. Unilateral mid-mandibular reactive bone in Middle Eocene Tomistoma africanum.

Environmental – Supernumerary limbs and missing segments or digits of leopard frog Rana pipiens induced by UV light exposure, but not by pesticide methoprene.

Environmental – Bilateral, symmetrical missing/reduced digits (ectomely and ectodactyly) produced by ultraviolet radiation at stage 25–26, just prior to hind limb development in Rana pipiens.

Congenital – Suggested digenetic trematodes as responsible for malformations.

Infection – Suggested digenetic trematodes as responsible for malformations.

Trauma – Distal tail regeneration in Ptychozoon homalocephalum.

Congenital – Rana alticola lacking hind limbs, with only trace of right pelvic arch with sickle-shaped left ilium and asymmetrical forelimbs.

Congenital – Reference to publications of Wright (1878: two-headed gopher snake) and Wyman (1863: two-headed common striped snake).

Congenital – Dicephalic snake with two tails. “One head and one tail were from ‘an ordinary black snake.’ The other was from a variety known as cow snake.”

Mythology – Dicephalic snake with two tails. “One head and one tail were from ‘an ordinary black snake.’ The other was from a variety known as cow snake.”

Congenital – “Two-headed snake…able to crawl either way.” Unclear from this description what kind of anomaly is present.

Mythology – “Two-headed snake…able to crawl either way.” Unclear from this description what kind of anomaly is present.

Congenital – Nine legged Rana clamitans tadpole reported as part of contest, with Normal Stewart reporting 7-legged (? mink) frog and Beatrice Mintz, 9-legged.

Congenital – Rana catesbeiana with 3 to 8 supernumerary legs.

Congenital – Dicephalic turtle.

Congenital – Dicephalic turtle.

Congenital – Dicephalic turtle, black rat snake, and derodymus fossil reptile.

Fossil – Derodymus fossil reptile Sinohydrosaurus lingyuanensis reported by Eric Buffetaut.

Congenital – Axial bifurcation in choristodere reptile from the Early Cretaceous Yixian rock formation in northeast China.

Fossil – Axial bifurcation in choristodere reptile from the Early Cretaceous Yixian rock formation in northeast China.

Congenital – Axial bifurcation in Cretaceous choristodere (plesiosaur morphotype, but without the flipper-like legs) Hyphalosaurus lingyuanensis.

Congenital – Dicephalic gopher snake.

Congenital – Conjoined red-eared slider. Duplication of anterior half of bodies including forelegs and heads. Also noted another “conjoined-twin turtle” 20 years ago, without any other information.

Trauma – South American snakes that suffered fractures in the hemimandible (Lachesis muta, Bothrops atrox) and quadrate (Bothrops insularis), and whose bones healed in a bad position.

Metabolic – Articular gout (recognized by presence of white or pale yellow crystals) occurs in Varanus exanthematicus, Testudo sulcata, Kinixys belliana, Testudo radiata (forelimb), Morish tortoise Testudo graeca and Testudo hermanni, Alligator sclerops, Tupinambis, and sharp-nosed crocodile Crocodilus americanus. Large fusiform urate kidney stones were found in a Bell’s hinge-back tortoise Kinixys belliana.

Congenital – Dicephalic common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis fitchi, Northwest garter snakes Thamnophis ordinoides (2), and racer Coluber constrictor.

Toxicology – Manganese ethylenebisdithiocarbamate produces delayed regrowth after amputation in Triturus cristatus carnifex. Thiourea and phenylthiourea similarly delayed Xenopus laevis and Rana temporaria growth (Fox and Turner 1967).

Toxicology – Dithiocarbamate fungicide effect produced limb malformation in Triturus cristatus.

Toxicology – Regenerating crested newt Triturus cristatus carnifex exposed to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid developed carpal fusions and reduction of metacarpals and phalanges.

Metabolic – Hypovitaminosis produced visceral, not articular gout in Crocodylus johnstoni and porosus.

Congenital – Noted rarity of dicephalic snakes.

Trauma – Ability to shed and regenerate tail is widespread in lizards and amphisbaenians and also occurs in a few snakes and in the tuatara.

This ability appears to have been independently lost in members of many groups, but some agamids and snakes have regained the ability. Amphisbaenians do not regenerate.

Climbing lizards have higher incidences of broken tails than ground-dwelling species, perhaps because the tail is usually less important in locomotion. Anolis carolinensis tail loss reduces perching ability.

Sceloporus grow more slowly, when replacing tail. Podarcis sicula, Cophosaurus texanus, Uma notata, and Dipsosaurus dorsalis with broken tails are slower. Speed is reduced in 36% of Cnemidophorus sexlineatus that have lost tails. Loss of distal third of tail prevents Basiliscus from running on its hind legs (Snyder 1949). Additionally, 50% of total growth energy is used in tail regeneration in Eumeces gilberti, and regeneration of autotomized tails has future reproduction costs (Maiorana 1977).

Tail regeneration developed five times in agamids: Physignathus, Amphibolurus Lophognathus, Agama s. str., Pseudotrapelus, and Stellio (Moody 1980).

The majority of lizards autotomize throughout the tail up to the basal, pygal series of vertebrae. Autotomy was not found in Platynota (Varanidae, Lanthanotidae, or Helodermatidae) or Chamaeleonidae. Fractures planes for autotomy occur in Dibamidae, Anelytropsidae, Lacertidae, Cordylidae, Xantusiidae, and Anniellidae. Autotomy planes are well developed in Scincidae, with exception of Egernia, Tiliqua [Omolepida, Trachydosaurus (such planes disappears in adult T. rugosus)], Corucia, and Tribolonotus. Among Iguanines, autotomy planes were absent in Amblyrhynchus, Brachylophus, Conolophus, and Iguana delicatissima; lost/reduced during ontogeny in Iguana iguana, Ctenosaura acanthura, Sauromalus, and in some Cyclura species. Teiidae have well-developed autotomy planes, which may be obliterated in adult Tupinambis teguixin. The very short-tailed diplodactyline Gekkonidae lacking fracture planes was Nephrurus asper. While most agamid lizards do not autotomize, site of autotomy occurrence is between, rather than within (fracturing), vertebrae. Intravertebral fracture planes and reduction of autotomy occur in Pachydactylus, Stenodactylus, Anolis, Iguana, Ophryoessoides, Tiliqua, Ophisaurus, and Amphisbaena.

Congenital – Body vertebral number corresponds to ventral scale number, while tail vertebra number corresponds to subcaudal scales in snakes.

Environmental – Cited temperature effects on vertebral number (Fox 1948; Jockusch 1997; Lecyk 1965; Peabody and Brodie 1975; Yntema 1960), but disputed garter snake Thamnophis elegans variation in scale counts as false impression of thermile lability – as temperatures were outside ecologically relevant range.

Congenital – Digital abnormalities were present in 17% of Triturus cristatus x T. marmoratus hybrids.

NOTE: A copy of this paper was obtained through colleagues for review, but the bibliographical citation could not be verified. Resúmenes VI Jornadas Argentinas de Zoología 1981 appears to be a different (although associated) publication from VI Jornadas Argentinas de Zoología Symposia 1981.

Other – Pathological changes (reduction or addition of bone substance) were noted on palatine, femoral, and on sacral vertebra in Metriorhynchus cf. moreli. The right femur had “corrosion” below caput femoris; the left femur, a deformed caput femoris. The trochanter femoris was thickened by bone deposits with a deformed distal end, and sacral vertebra was considerably thickened.

Fossil – Pathological changes (reduction or addition of bone substance) were noted on palatine, femoral, and on sacral vertebra in Metriorhynchus cf. moreli. The right femur had “corrosion” below caput femoris; the left femur, a deformed caput femoris. The trochanter femoris was thickened by bone deposits with a deformed distal end, and sacral vertebra was considerably thickened.

Trauma – Thirty two of 118 fugivorous bataans (Gray’s monitor) had minor healed injuries. Eight percent lacked tail tip (contrasted with 16% of Varanus salvator, the latter being a carrion feeder). Mostly, female bataans injuries were attributed to intraspecific aggression. Seventy five percent of Varanus olivaceus (correct name of Varanus grayi after Auffenberg on priority) injuries were in females, but were not intraspecific aggression-related. One bataan had hip (proximal femur) arthritis, attributed to trauma.

Trauma – Crocodylomorpha Mesoeucrocodylia Baurusuchus pachecoi from the Upper Cretaceous of Brazil had osteoderm scratches and linear, shallow, 22.1 mm long scratches and cracks. This compares with 20% of Crocodylus niloticus. Extensive cicatrization indicated survival.

Fossil – Crocodylomorpha Mesoeucrocodylia Baurusuchus pachecoi from the Upper Cretaceous of Brazil had osteoderm scratches and linear, shallow, 22.1 mm long scratches and cracks. This compares with 20% of Crocodylus niloticus. Extensive cicatrization indicated survival.

Metabolic – The article discusses metabolic bone disease (MBD) in iguanas, and states it is also known as secondary nutritional hypoparathyroidism, fibrous osteodystrophy, and osteoporosis. It also states that metabolic bone disease (MBD) is the most frequent disease found in captive iguanas and can also be found in other reptiles including chelonians. MBD occurs because the calcium in the bloodstream (required for the transmission of nervous impulses and muscle contractions) is insufficient, and the organism resorts to decalcification of the bones to raise the blood level of calcium. Among other symptoms, MBD causes hard swelling of the extremities, softening and deformation of the bones in general, deformation of the vertebral column, and multiple fractures of the bones. Causes of the disease include (1) improper diet, mainly the wrong calcium to phosphorus ratio; (2) inadequate ingestion or synthesis of vitamin D3, which is required for absorption of calcium from the intestine; and (3) inadequate exposure to UVB radiation, which is required for the synthesis of the biologically active form, vitamin D3.

Congenital – 19–30% of cane toad Bufo marinus had hind limb abnormalities, with lesser number with forelimb abnormalities. Abnormalities included brachydactyly and polymely. No Ribeiroia metacercariae were found in these Bermuda specimens.

Vascular – Mexican giant musk turtle Staurotypus triporcatus has a reduced plastron, with large cutaneous surface area for respiration, but had equal reliance on aquatic respiration as white-lipped mud turtle Kinosternon leucostomum. Staurotypus triporcatua has a thick, leathery skin, contrasted with that of A. spinifera. It also had twice as many breathing bouts as Kinosternon leucostomum but took only one sixth of the number of breaths per bout. Carbon dioxide excretion exceeds oxygen absorption, related to carbon dioxide solubility in water. They suggest the lungs are for oxygen absorption and the skin for CO₂ excretion.

Infection – Asiatic leaf or brown stream terrapin Cyclemys dentata with rugose, pitted shell from osteomyelitis/shell rot.

Shell disease – Asiatic leaf or brown stream terrapin Cyclemys dentata with rugose, pitted shell from osteomyelitis/shell rot.

Congenital – Dicephalic Russian rat snake Elaphe schrencki schrencki.

Trauma – Carapace and plastron injuries in Chelonia from “violent contact with rocks and substrate in rough turf close to shore” (Wright and Lay).

Infection – Mycobacetrium avium infection in green turtle Chelonia mydas, but no comment on bone involvement (Brock et al. 1976).

Congenital – Terminology offered as (1) C. diplopagi simplex caudad, (2) diplopagi simplex craniad, (3) diplopagi simplex mesad, but herps were not mentioned.

Neoplasm – Malignant melanoma in pine snake Pituophis melanoleucus.

Congenital – Dicephalism in Elaphe obsoleta lindheimeri, Vipera russellii, Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia, Bothrops moojeni, and Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata.

Infection – Cachectic Iguana iguana with bite wound on rear foot, a thorn in the left rostal mandible, and Acinetobacter baumannii and Trichosporon beigelii grown from coelomic fluid accumulation.

Metabolic – Femoral, tibial, and fibular periosteal proliferation (up to 1 cm in thickness) with “intertrabecular fibrosis” noted in a green iguana Iguana iguana, with 2–3 mm nodular lung masses and multifocal pinpoint kidney calcifications. Diagnosis is difficult to assess, but renal calcifications are highly suggestive of hyperparathyroidism. Renal osteodystrophy is an alternative diagnostic consideration, but cannot be further analyzed as no photographs were provided.

Neoplasia – Femoral, tibial, and fibular periosteal proliferation (up to 1 cm in thickness) with “intertrabecular fibrosis” noted in a green iguana Iguana iguana, with 2–3 mm nodular lung masses, and multifocal pinpoint kidney calcifications was attributed to hypertrophic osteoarthropathy. Diagnosis is difficult to assess, but renal calcifications are highly suggestive of hyperparathyroidism. Renal osteodystrophy is an alternative diagnostic consideration, but cannot be further analyzed as no photographs were provided.

Trauma – Selective predation by invertebrate predators, selectively snipping, or chewing off small pieces (Brodie et al. 1978; Johnson et al. 1975; Licht 1974; Manteifel and Reshetnikov 2002).

Frequency of deformed toads were 1.3% at Havercroft, 1.2% at Campsall Clay, and 9.8% at Upton Colliery (chi square = 22.139). Predators at sites included three-spined stickleback fish Gasterosteus aculeatus, newts T. helveticus and T. vulgaris, diving beetles Dytiscus, water scorpions Nepa cinerea, and dragonfly odonata nymphs sympetrum. Dragon fly nymphs Aeshna mixta, Libellula depressa and especially ­sympetrum (probably striolatum or sanguineum) were the only ones that generated deformities. Dytiscus larvae maimed and killed, but it did not produce deformities.

Environmental – Increased salinity in freshwater habitats increases tadpole susceptibility to predation (Cook 1971; Squires et al. 2008).

Trauma – Anolis carolinensis (which uses its tail for balance) and Cnemidophorus sexlineatus (which increases speed, using tail as counter balance) do not loose tails as frequently as Lygosoma laterale or Coleonyx variegatus. Body growth is reduced in tailless Sceloporus undulatus, S. jarrovi, and S. scalaris.

Trauma – Alleged osteogenic sarcoma of femur in Rana pipiens, but more probably fracture with callus.

Congenital – Three cases of polymely in Rana esculenta (aka Rana viridis) in the collections of the Cabinet of Comparative Anatomy of the University of Pavia (Italy). The first case was a small specimen with three hind limbs, of which the supernumerary limb was attached to the left side, behind the articulation of the left leg, next to the pubic symphysis. It was shorter and more gracile than the normal legs. Balsamo-Crivelli believed the foot resulted from the fusion of two feet because the remaining three digits were also abnormal. The third was very small and the metatarsal was mostly fused with the metatarsal of the longest digit. The second case had a supernumerary hind limb articulated to the posterior part of the articulation for the left femur. It had only four metatarsals and four digits, of which the two in the middle were very long, and the two on the outsides were very short. Balsamo-Crivelli believed this foot also resulted from the fusion of two because in it he saw the external and medial digits of one foot, and the medial and external digits of another. The third case had a supernumerary limb articulated to the superior aspect of the left femur. The foot had only two digits, which Balsamo-Crivelli thought were the outermost digit and the following digit.

Other – Makes statement related to spelling of author names: “A name is merely a combination of letters, and one is at liberty to use a wholly arbitrary combination.”

Congenital – Supernumerary forelimb in spring peeper, Hyla crucifer crucifer.

Congenital – Dicephalic turtle, Chrysemys picta, observed in captivity for three and a half months. The heads alternated control of the body, depending on which was asleep.

Congenital – Dicephalic turtle Chrysemys picta observed in captivity for three and a half months. The heads alternated control of the body, depending on which was asleep.

Congenital – Javanese cobra Naja naja sputatrix with 19 or 21 body scales and variable body scales163–183; 21–23 neck, 153–159 ventral, and 45–57 caudal scales in Enhydris enhydris; 175–186 ventral and 53–58 caudal scales in Ular pi-ter Holarchus octolineatus.

Trauma – Change in caudal scaling patterns as evidence of tail regeneration in Homeosaurus maximiliani v. Meyer from Solenhofen. New scaling as evidence of tail regeneration in Sphenodon and Pseudopus (Barbour 1912; Boulenger 1888; Ginkos and Skinks).

Congenital – Supernumerary digits regenerated in newt; double foot in Axolotl.

Trauma – Tail duplicity in Asyntaxia caudalis.

Trauma – Reports citation of bifurcated tails in lizards by Plinius, Porta and Marcgrav Marchant, Needham, Arnoult de Nobleville, Lacépède and Gachet (from Fraisse 1885), Aldrovandus (1596), and Leydig 1872, with four and two tails. Whereas Porta and Aldrovandus favor an ontogenetic origin of bifid tails, the regeneration of damaged tails has been cited as reason by Needham (1750), Lacépède, Bosc and Glückselig (from Fraisse 1885) and by Leydig (1872), and Tornier.

Congenital – Cauda bifida in Pelobates fuscus, Triton cristatus, Bufo viridis, and Rana fusca (Bruch 1864).

Congenital – Abnormal scutes in Gopherus polyphemus (gopher tortoise).

Shell disease – Abnormal scutes in Gopherus polyphemus (gopher tortoise).

Metabolic – Carapace curling in Trionyx muticus related to new born mouse diet, partially correcting with calcium supplementation and fluorescent light.

Shell disease – Carapace curling in Trionyx muticus related to new born mouse diet, partially correcting with calcium supplementation and fluorescent light.

Metabolic – Overdose of vitamin D (related to cat food ingestion in red-footed tortoise Geochelone carbonaria resulted in generalized mineralization, especially of oviducts, urinary bladder.

Shell disease – Carapace curling in Trionyx muticus related to new born mouse diet, partially correcting with calcium supplementation and fluorescent light.

Metabolic – Metabolic bone disease in iguanas manifests as shortened or swollen/lumpy mandibles, firm long bone swelling, pathological fractures, and collapsed vertebrae, blamed on too much dietary protein. Vitamin D and calcium produce metastatic calcification in iguana.

Congenital – Axial bifurcation and conjoined twins in slow worm Anguis fragilis, sand lizard Lacerta agilis, and blue-tongued skink Tiliqua scincoides. Upper jaw shortening, cleft palate, and short tails, citing Bellairs (1981).

Infection – Ossifying spondylosis related to age, osteomyelitis, or “metabolic disease.” Actually insufficiently illustrated for actual diagnosis.

Metabolic – Articular and periarticular gout in green iguana Iguana iguana and and pseudogout in Egyptian spiny-tailed lizard Uromastyx. Ossifying spondylosis related to age, osteomyelitis, or “metabolic disease.” Actually insufficiently illustrated for actual diagnosis. Nutritional hyperparathyroidism, fibrous osteodystrophy, osteomalacia, osteoporsis, pathologic fractures, and folding fractures in lizards.

Vertebral – Ossifying spondylosis related to age, osteomyelitis, or “metabolic disease.” Actually insufficiently illustrated for actual diagnosis.

Infection – Distal leg necrosis in green iguana Iguana iguana with diffuse long bone periosteal reaction and subcutaneous emphysema, diagnosed as hypertrophic osteoarthropathy.

Other – green iguana Iguana iguana with diffuse long bone periosteal reaction and subcutaneous emphysema, diagnosed as hypertrophic osteoarthropathy.

Congenital – Axial bifurcation and other congenital abnormalities occur in lizards.

Conjoined slow worm Anguis fragilis, sand lizard Lacerta agilis, and blue-tongued skink Tiliqua scincoides.

Trauma – Autotomy occurs in lizards.

Infection – Osteomyelitis in horn-headed lizard Acanthosaura crucigera. Periodontal disease in bearded dragons, water dragon Physignathus lesuerii, frilled lizard Chlamydosaurus kingii, sailfin lizard Hydrosaurus pustulatus, and Jackson’s chameleon Chamaeoleo jacksonii.

Metabolic – pseudogout, gout, and fibrous dystrophy occur in lizards.

Vascular – Avascular necrosis of tail in green iguana Iguana iguana.

Congenital – Thirty-one percent phalangeal or digit brachydactyly (especially forelegs) in hynobiid salamander Salamandrella (Hynobius) keyserlingii in Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula, attributed to aggressive behavior. Unclear how aggression would shorten a limb.

Trauma – Thirty-one percent phalangeal or digit brachydactyly (especially forelegs) in hynobiid salamander Salamandrella (Hynobius) keyserlingii in Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula, attributed to aggressive behavior. Unclear how aggression would shorten a limb.

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Related posts:

1. Bibliography H-L
2. Bibliography M-N
3. Frequently Cited in Discussion of Amphibian and/or Reptile Pathology but which do not Discuss Actual Amphibian or Reptile Abnormalities
4. List of Fossil Taxa

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