Deer were released in small numbers in New Zealand from 1851, but the absence of predators and the abundance of habitat allowed their population to explode. By 1909, there were major control efforts in an attempt to reduce their numbers. At this time, there was nothing more than a small market for skins. By 1931, hired professionals were employed to manage the deer; although interrupted by the Second World War, over a million deer had been culled by the early 1970s. As markets were established for meat in Europe and for pizzles, tails, sinews and velvet in China, processors and supply chains were formed. Due to a combination of more efficient culling, deer being forced into the bush and nocturnal behaviour, it became clear that there was a need for a more consistent supply of these products. The original farms were established in 1963 in the bush on the North Island and open tussock on the South Island. It was assumed that this was where the deer chose to live in the wild because it suited them best. This land was also not suitable for cattle or sheep and, as it neighboured the wild population, there could be further catches of wild deer to increase their numbers. It soon became clear that only this last point was beneficial. By 1980, there were approximately 500 farms across New Zealand with at least six of these with more than 1000 deer. There was some reduction in hind numbers from 430 000 in 2015 to 360 000 by 2021, largely due to the expansion of the dairy industry. New Zealand exports of the order of 14 500 tonnes of venison ($155 million) and total venison-related exports were valued at $254 million including $79 million for velvet exports to Asia.

Deer farming began in the United Kingdom with a research project at Glensaugh, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1969 followed by the first commercial deer farm in Fife, followed shortly afterwards by a second farm owned by JCB at Alton, near Stoke on Trent, Staffordshire, England. The industry went through a long period of very slow growth followed by rapid growth in the last 15 years with two abattoirs that developed dedicated lairage and lines for handling deer. Currently (September 2024), there is one large abattoir supplying venison to two large retailers, killing deer from September to March. All other farmed venison is either slaughtered on a farm in small-scale abattoirs or field shot, prior to transport to local abattoirs for further processing (see Chapter 8 for more details on farmed venison versus wild venison). This venison is generally distributed through butcher shops, hotels, farm shops and farmers’ markets.

It is unclear how many deer farms exist in the United Kingdom although data from the largest abattoir recorded 68 farms in the 23/24 season (down from 79 in 22/23) handling 9174 prime carcases (up from 7977 last season) and half of these farms produced less than 100 prime deer each season. In order to be classed as prime, deer (males and females) should be no older than 27 months at the time of slaughter, although the majority are finished between the ages of 14 and 22 months. A further stipulation of the UK abattoir is that deer are grass-fed for the four weeks prior to slaughter except by prior agreement under certain circumstances and males must not be castrated.

In contrast to New Zealand, this venison is primarily consumed in the United Kingdom and exports are limited to small volumes of by-products, including hides, sinews and pizzles (there is a substantial export market for wild-shot venison). The United Kingdom imports venison from countries, including New Zealand; the majority of venison consumed within the United Kingdom is supplied from the wild venison sector. Prime venison is currently about four times the price of wild venison. Deer farms are distributed throughout the United Kingdom with just over half of the farms in Scotland. Farms have been established on various land types from arable land to upland hills. The farmed venison sector is not dissimilar to the beef suckler industry. Hill farms produce store calves which are sold at weaning. Upland farms with access to better forage quality and lowland farms can be dual-purpose, both producing calves and finishing them, as well as dedicated fattening units purchasing weaned calves for finishing.

Calving begins early in May with the peak in late May and early June. The calving field should offer shelter from adverse weather, undulations and rushes or scrub as hiding places for hinds and calves. Often, the ‘roughest’ fields contain ideal birthing sites. However, there is also a need to provide lactating hinds with high-quality pasture to optimise calf growth. If this is compromised by the use of low-productivity ‘rough’ land for calving, a strategy is required to give hinds access to better pastures after birth. If rough fields for calving are not available (e.g. on intensive lowland farms), it may be necessary to create calving sites and calf hide-out sites; for example, leaving unmown or ungrazed strips of long grass in the middle of the intended calving fields. These strips should be sited away from fence lines to reduce the temptation for calves to go through fences. Check fence security; calves can squeeze through large gauge netting, under fences or through damaged netting. Be aware of waterways where calves can drown and minimise disturbance from roads or footpaths.

Hinds approaching birth seek isolation from their herd-mates and actively search for a suitable calving site. The preferred calving site typically sought by the hind will have an elevated position with good ground cover, because this offers good visibility over the surrounding terrain as well as shelter for the calf.

When such calving environments are in short supply, there can be considerable competition between hinds for prime sites, leading to conflicts in which the dominant hinds prevail. Subordinate hinds that fail to secure a good calving site often become stressed leading to a poor maternal bond with their calf within the first few hours after birth, leading to calf abandonment, and ultimately starvation and dehydration two to three days later. Failure of bonding between the hind and the calf can be a great area of loss on some farms.

In some cases, birthing goes as planned, but the calf has insufficient cover in which to hide, especially if it is disturbed (e.g. by other hinds seeking a good birthing site). Such calves tend to wander in search of suitable cover and become the victims of misadventure or bullying.

In the early stages deer calves will feed intermittently through the day and will be left by their mother for prolonged periods. For this reason, it is not possible to move deer between paddocks during calving because there is a risk that a calf will be missed. It is also a good reason to avoid topping or mowing a field during calving to avoid injury to calves, which will not move, even when a machine approaches. It is important to be sure that there is sufficient access to grazing and supplementary feeding for the duration of calving.

Dystocia or calving difficulties in deer are rare. Malpresentation, including the head or leg tucked back or breach presentation, is possible. Over-conditioned hinds are the most common cause of dystocia. Aim for a body condition score (BCS) of 3.5 at calving (Audigé et al. 1998; see https://deernz.org/deer-hub/feeding/feeding-deer/body-condition-score/). Intervention, if done, should be sooner rather than later. In farm situations, intervention should take place within 12 hours after the start of calving and one hour from a calf seen at the vulva (deer in park systems may deliver live calves 24–36 hours after presenting a leg – allowing some flexibility when considering intervention). Hinds may require sedation and calf rejection is common after an assisted calving. Weigh up the value of the hind and calf against the risk of disturbing the rest of the group. Due to the risk of miss mothering and excessive calf mortality, disturbance should be kept to a minimum during this period. Observation is best limited to prolonged periods of observation with binoculars and avoid driving or walking through the fields daily.

Calving hinds may be split by stage of gestation, allowing those calving early to be moved to better grazing, once calving is complete. This may help to reduce the build-up of disease agents in groups and on the pasture, in particular cryptosporidia. The most common cause of death in calves, especially in the first two weeks, is cryptosporidiosis and deaths may be ‘sudden’. Managing groups by calving dates, optimising stocking rates and being aware of weather factors will minimise this risk. A good target during the calving period is to aim for less than 5% mortality in calves.

Wallows in the calving paddock may be a risk area for cryptosporidia due to faecal contamination of the hinds’ udder.

Yearling hinds are ideally calved in a separate group as they often begin calving slightly later. Being separate can reduce calf mortality resulting from bullying or mismothering due to the aggressive behaviour of dominant hinds.

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