Introduction

Luisa H. M. Miranda

The evaluation of tissue morphology in hematoxylin and eosin (H&E)‐stained histological sections is a standard and critical step in diagnostic pathology. Morphological changes detected through H&E staining provide a timely and comprehensive perception of an existing lesion and may drive further diagnostic workup when necessary. Although the assessment of microscopic lesions through H&E stain is a powerful method that allows an accurate diagnosis in many cases, there are still situations where H&E‐based examination alone is insufficient for a definitive diagnosis. Thus, pathologists should be aware of the available ancillary techniques and know how these tools can be employed to maximize diagnostic performance and support diagnostic decisions.

There is currently a range of available techniques to support diagnostic pathology: histochemical stains, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and molecular methods. Traditional histochemical (special) stains can help identify cell products or cell pigments or microbes by employing dyes with chemical affinity to these components. IHC can help specifically identify cell types or detect the presence and distribution of infectious organisms within tissue. Molecular methods, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), can detect specific targets in tissue through the amplification of nuclei acid from the specimen.

This chapter is a brief overview of the different techniques that are applied to diagnostic pathology. The fundamentals of each technique are discussed, including advantages, disadvantages, and applicability to specific conditions in the routine of avian pathology.

Special Histologic Stains Used as Ancillary Diagnostic Testing in Avian Species

Marina Gimeno

Alternative histologic staining techniques or histochemical stains, commonly referred to as “special stains,” provide valuable diagnostic information to veterinary pathologists. Their use is especially helpful to identify tissue architectural elements and to determine the nature of deposits and pigments. These stains not only highlight a particular tissue component, but they also enable pathologists to evaluate the histology slide through a different perspective when compared to routine H&E stain.

Special stains are also useful to detect intralesional agents of disease such as fungi, bacteria, and protozoa. In research, special stains add great value to retrospective histopathologic case series and are especially helpful when establishing scoring systems. Examples include characterization of atherosclerosis in psittacine birds, fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome (hemorrhagic liver syndrome) in chickens, and iron storage diseases.

The use of some special stains is limited by multiple interfering factors. For example, the observation of positive congophilic amyloid material is dependent on the type of amyloid. Treatment of the tissue with potassium permanganate causes protein AA amyloid to lose its affinity to Congo red, which results in negative staining (false‐negative). Detection of amyloid using fluorescent stain (e.g., thioflavin T) and metachromatic stains, such as crystal violet, have proved successful in birds. Other special stains such as Oil red O require cryosection instead of routine paraffin embedding and sectioning to improve lipid retention.

Table 19.1 details some special stains successfully used in avian diagnostics and research.

Immunohistochemistry

Shannon L. Donahoe [Neoplasia], Marina Gimeno [Infectious Diseases]

IHC is a commonly employed diagnostic tool used in conjunction with histopathology for the investigation of neoplastic and infectious disease in formalin‐fixed paraffin‐embedded (FFPE) histologic sections. IHC enables the identification of specific antigens or cellular markers in tissues and cells using polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies linked to enzyme‐based chromogens that allows the visualization of these antigens by light microscopy. Common uses in human and veterinary pathology include immunophenotyping neoplastic cells, diagnosing micrometastases, characterizing cellular infiltrates, and identifying specific infectious agents. Current trends in human medicine also highlight a role for prognostication of neoplastic disease by identifying chemotherapeutic targets and predicting a tumor’s response to therapy.

Many variables can influence IHC results in any species, including antibody clone/source, dilution, antigen retrieval method, detection system, degree of tissue fixation, and prolonged formalin fixation, among others. These variables and suggested guidelines for IHC techniques are well reviewed by O’Hurley et al., Ramos‐Vara and Miller, Webster et al., and Ramos‐Vara et al. and will not be addressed in further detail in this chapter. Using IHC for the diagnosis of neoplasia in birds can pose additional challenges. The vast majority of commercially available antibodies used for diagnostic IHC have been raised against human or rodent antigens, and limited data exists about the cross‐reactivity of mammalian antibodies in avian tissues. While IHC, as an ancillary diagnostic technique, has been used to characterize many types of avian neoplasia and cells, some mammalian antibodies may not work in birds, and it is unknown if or how antibody cross‐reactivity varies between different avian species. Furthermore, certain tumors in birds may not express the same antigens as the equivalent tumor in mammals. As such, positive avian tissue controls (ideally from the same bird or a conspecific bird) containing the antigen of interest and negative controls should be run in parallel with the test tissue for every IHC run to ensure valid results.

We have reviewed the published literature and compiled a list of diagnostically relevant antigen markers that have been identified in FFPE avian tissues, the species they have been used in, and additional details about the antibody and protocol when this was provided in the reference (Tables 19.2 and 19.3). Of note, while it appears that many of the commonly used mammalian antibodies can be used successfully in various bird species, inconsistent cross‐reactivity has been reported in avian tissues using antibodies raised against mammalian B‐cell markers, macrophage/histiocytic cell markers, and melanocyte markers, suggesting that these are inconsistent across avian species.

IHC is also used to identify agents of disease in tissues. One important benefit of IHC over PCR to detect infectious agents is that it will localize the disease‐causing agent in the context of histologic lesions, providing insight about a microorganism’s significance and a greater understanding of disease pathogenesis. Some cross‐reactivity may exist between closely related pathogens and antibody specificity may need to be validated against tissues containing similar pathogens or other diagnostic tests utilized to confirm infection. IHC of infectious agents is also a useful diagnostic tool in cases without available fresh tissue and only formalin‐fixed tissue. Table 19.4 includes some primary antibodies used to detect infectious agents in birds and its’ reported tissue antigen distribution.

In Situ Hybridization

Luisa H. M. Miranda

Molecular techniques have become an important tool in diagnostic pathology, notably in the detection of pathogens (Table 19.5) and genetic‐related conditions, including genetic susceptibility to diseases. These techniques detect specific DNA or RNA in tissue samples, either through a probe‐based approach, such as in situ hybridization (ISH), or through DNA amplification, such as PCR. ISH uses DNA or RNA probes that align to complementary target nuclei acid sequences in tissue sections, such as those obtained from FFPE specimens.

In contrast to PCR, ISH allows nuclei acid detection in conjunction with tissue changes, so that active infections can be confirmed by the existence of associated histological changes. Ideal tissue fixation for ISH should then preserve cell morphology without damaging nuclei acid. Frozen preparations usually have little impact on nuclei acids but do not allow a good morphological assessment. On the other hand, while formalin fixation may damage the nuclei acid by promoting cross‐linkage of proteins, DNA and RNA, its fixation retains an optimal cell morphology.

Most of the samples in which ISH is performed are fixed in neutral buffered formaldehyde‐based solutions and embedded in paraffin. Suboptimal processing conditions may impact the quality of the nuclei acid in the tissue, so that pre‐analytical factors need to be carefully managed for good quality of nuclei acid in tissue samples. A prolonged time between tissue collection and fixation may increase RNA degradation due to the ubiquitous presence of RNases. In addition, when unbuffered formaldehyde solutions are used, formic acid is formed, which turns nucleic acid more susceptible to degradation. A prolonged time of fixation should also be avoided as it causes reduced nuclei acid fragment length, with progressive reduction in signaling until loss of detection. In case a short fixation with subsequent embedding in paraffin is not possible, it is recommended that tissues are fixed for 24 hours in formaldehyde‐based solutions and then transported and stored in ethanol 70% for a better preservation of nucleic acid structure. The prolonged storage of paraffin blocks has also been implicated to signaling reduction for DNA and RNA targets.

Antigen	Taxonomy	Number of birdsb	Primary antibodyc	Clone/catalog#	Vendor	Staining patternd	Dilution	Antigen retrieval	Positive control tissue(s)	Context	Reference
ACTH	Psittaciformes
	Salmon‐crested Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	NR	Pituitary adenoma	Starkey et al. (2008)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	12 (1 control)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A0571	Dako	Cytoplasmic (positive in 7/11 cases and positive control)	1:500	NR	Normal budgerigar pituitary gland	Somatotroph pituitary tumor	Langohr et al. (2012)
Actin muscle	Columbiformes
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	NR	NR	BioGenex	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	Vascular smooth muscle (internal control)	Leiomyosarcoma	Newman and West (2001)
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	Mouse Ab (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Positive	1:100	Saponin	Skeletal muscle from same bird	Rhabdomyosarcoma	Fernández‐bellon et al. (2003)
	Psittaciformes
	Rosy‐faced Lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	NR	Metastatic sarcoma	Ijzer et al. (2002)
	Orange‐winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica)	1	Mouse mAb	HHF35, MS‐742‐S	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:100	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Red‐and‐green Macaw (Ara choloropterus)	1	Mouse mAb	HHF35, MS‐742‐S	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:100	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	3	Mouse mAb	HHF35, MS‐742‐S	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:100	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	1	NR	NR	ICN Immuno‐biologicals	Positive	1:200	Saponin	Normal tissue (NOS)	Granular cell tumor	Patnaik (1993)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	HHF35, MAK‐0014	Linaris Biologische Produkte	Positive	NR	HIER	Skeletal muscle from same bird	Rhabdomyosarcoma	Ober et al. (2015)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	2	Mouse mAb	HHF35, MS‐742‐S	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:100	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
Actin muscle smooth	Columbiformes
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	NR	NR	Novacastra	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	Vascular smooth muscle (internal control)	Leiomyosarcoma	Newman and West (2001)
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	NR	NR	NR	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	Mesenchymal tissue (internal control)	Teratoma	Hooper (2008)
	Galliformes
	Crested Fireback (Lophura ignita)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:100	NR	Vascular smooth muscle (internal control)	Leiomyosarcoma	Zordan et al. (2017)
	Psittaciformes
	Fischer’s Lovebird (Agapornis fischeri)	1	NR	1A4	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	1:100	NR	Vascular smooth muscle (internal control)	Hemangioendothelioma	Rossi et al. (2016)
	Orange‐winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica)	1	Mouse mAb	1A4, MS‐21‐P	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:200	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Amazon (Amazona sp.)	NR	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	1A4, MU128	BioGenex	Cytoplasmic	1:1,200	NR	Arteries (SNR)	Atherosclerosis	Fricke et al. (2009)
	Red‐and‐green Macaw (Ara choloropterus)	1	Mouse mAb	1A4, MS‐21‐P	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:200	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	3	Mouse mAb	1A4, MS‐21‐P	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:200	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic	NR	HIER	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Zamani‐Ahmadmahmudi et al. (2015)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	Mouse Ab	NR	Dako	Positive	1:400	HIER	NR	Granular cell tumor	Hernández et al. (2012)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	Mouse mAb	1A4	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:400	HIER	NR	Granular cell tumor	Sanchez‐Godoy et al. (2020)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	NR	NR	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Vascular smooth muscle (internal control)	Rhabdomyosarcoma	Gulbahar et al. (2005)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	1	Mouse mAb	1A4	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:100	NR	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bonel et al. (2019)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	2	Mouse mAb	1A4, MS‐21‐P	NeoMarkers	Cytoplasmic	1:200	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	NR	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	1A4, MU128	BioGenex	Cytoplasmic	1:1,200	NR	Arteries (SNR)	Atherosclerosis	Fricke et al. (2009)
	Falconiformes
	Yellow‐headed Caracara (Milvago chimachima)	1	Mouse mAb	1A4	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	1:6,000	HIER	Vascular smooth muscle (internal control)	Metastatic rhabdomyosarcoma	Maluenda et al. (2010)
	Passeriformes
	Sunda Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	1A4, M0851	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:750	HIER	Human tonsil	Leiomyosarcoma	Cardosa and Levy (2014)
	Rufous‐bellied Thrush (Turdus rufiventris)	1	Mouse mAb	1A4	Dako	Positive	1:100	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Hemangiosarcoma	Lima et al. (2016)

BLA.36	Galliformes
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	60	mAb	NR	BioGenex	Positive	1:50	HIER	Chicken brain	Paramyxovirus	Kommers et al. (2002)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	NR	BioGenex	Positive	1:50	HIER	Chicken B‐cell lymphoma used as positive tissue control for another case	Positive control	Neagari et al. (2011)
	Gruiformes
	Okinawa Rail (Hypotaenidia okinawae)	2	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	NR	BioGenex	Positive	1:50	HIER	Spleen and bursa used as positive tissue controls for another case	Positive control	Neagari et al. (2011)
	Passeriformes
	American Goldfinch (Spinus tristis)	5	NR	NR	NR	Negative in lesion; positive internal control	NR	NR	Spleen and Hardarian gland of same species	Atoxoplasmosis	Cushing et al. (2011)
	Sphenisciformes
	Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus)	1	NR	NR	Biogenics	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Leukocytes (internal control)	Unclassified round cell neoplasm	Woodhouse et al. (2015)
	African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus)	1	mAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Non‐neoplastic spleen from the same bird	Lymphoma	Jones et al. (2014)
	Psittaciformes
	Red‐and‐green Macaw (Ara choloropterus)	1	NR	NR	NR	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Leukocytes (internal control)	T‐cell leukemia	Hammond et al. (2010)
	White Cockatoo (Cacatua alba)	1	Rabbit mAb	NR	NR	Positive	NR	NR	Avian spleen (SNR)	B‐cell lymphoma	Rivera et al. (2009)
Caspase‐3	Galliformes
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	60	mAb	NR	Promega	Positive	1:350	NR	Chicken spleen	Paramyxovirus	Kommers et al. (2002)
CD3	Anseriformes
	Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)	NR	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Spleen used as positive tissue control for marker validation	Positive control	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula)	19	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00453	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Greater Scaup (Aythya marila)	4	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Smew (Mergellus albellus)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Common Merganser (Mergus merganser)	5	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Canada Goose (Branta canadensis)	2	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Black Swan (Cygnus atratus)	1	Rabbit pAb	NR	Biocare	Positive	NR	HIER	Chicken thymus and bursa; swan tissues (NOS)	T‐cell leukemia	Sinclair et al. (2015)
	Mute Swan (Cygnus olor)	5	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Galliformes
	Red‐legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa)	9	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A0452	Dako	Cytoplasmic	NR	HIER	Spleen and bursa from same species	West Nile virus	Gamino et al. (2016)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	2	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	N1580	Dako	Positive	None	HIER	Spleen and bursa used as positive tissue controls for another case	Positive control	Neagari et al. (2011)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	NR	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Spleen, bursa and thymus used as positive tissue controls for another case	Positive control	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	60	Rabbit pAb	NR	Dako	Positive	1:100	HIER	NR	Paramyxovirus	Kommers et al. (2002)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	20	Mouse Ab (anti‐human)	A0452	Dako	Positive	1:50	HIER	NR	Marek’s disease	Pejović et al. (2007)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	3	Mouse mAb (anti‐chicken)	CT3	Southern Biotechnology	Cytoplasmic and membranous	1:100	EIER	Chicken thymus, spleen, cecal tonsil, bursa	IHC identification of chicken lymphocytes	Kurokawa and Yamamoto (2020)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	3	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	F7.2.38	Abcam	Cytoplasmic and membranous	1:400	HIER	Chicken thymus, spleen, cecal tonsil, bursa	IHC identification of chicken lymphocytes	Kurokawa and Yamamoto (2020)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	3	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	PC3/188A	Abcam	Cytoplasmic and membranous	1:800	EIER	Chicken thymus, spleen, cecal tonsil, bursa	IHC identification of chicken lymphocytes	Kurokawa and Yamamoto (2020)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	3	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A0452	Dako	Cytoplasmic and membranous	1:800	HIER	Chicken thymus, spleen, cecal tonsil, bursa	IHC identification of chicken lymphocytes	Kurokawa and Yamamoto (2020)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	3	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	SP7	Abcam	Cytoplasmic and membranous	1:800	HIER	Chicken thymus, spleen, cecal tonsil, bursa	IHC identification of chicken lymphocytes	Kurokawa and Yamamoto (2020)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Lymphocytes (internal control)	Liposarcoma	Blakey et al. (2018)
	Crested Partridge (Rollulus rouloul)	2	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell lymphoma	Haesendonck et al. (2015)
	Columbiformes
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	Rabbit pAb (NR)	NR	Dako	Positive	None (PD)	HIER	NR	Sarcocystis encephalitis	Ushio et al. (2015)
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	Goat Ab (anti‐rabbit)	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell lymphoma	Williams et al. (2017)
	Gruiformes
	Okinawa Rail (Hypotaenidia okinawae)	3 (2 controls)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	N1580	Dako	Positive	None	HIER	Spleen and bursa from same species; chicken Marek’s disease skin tumor	T‐cell lymphoma	Neagari et al. (2011)
	Red‐crowned Crane (Grus japonensis)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	N1580	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Lymphocytes (internal control)	Undifferentiated carcinoma	Sakaguchi et al. (2013)
	Charadriiformes
	European Herring gull (Larus argentatus)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Sphenisciformes
	Humboldt Penguin (Spheniscus humboldti)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A0452	Dako	Positive	1:200	EIER	Gut and spleen from same animal	T‐cell lymphoma	Schmidt et al. (2012)
	African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus)	1	pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Spleen (internal control)	Lymphoma	Jones et al. (2014)
	Pelecaniformes
	Pink‐backed Pelican (Pelecanus rufescens)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A0453	Dako	Positive	1:200	EIER	Gut and spleen from same animal	T‐cell lymphoma	Schmidt et al. (2012)
	Accipitriformes
	Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A00452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Strigiformes
	Eurasian Eagle‐Owl (Bubo bubo)	3	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	A0452	Dako	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus)	1	mAb	CD3 epsilon, clone CD‐3‐12	Serotec	Positive	NR	HIER	NR	T‐cell lymphoma	Malka et al. (2008)
	Psittaciformes
	Lovebird (Agapornis sp.)	6 (3 controls)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Amazon (Amazona sp.)	4 (3 controls)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Turquoise‐fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)	1	NR	A0452	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell lymphoma	de Wit et al. (2003)
	Yellow‐headed Amazon (Amazona oratrix)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell lymphoma	Burgos‐Rodríguez et al. (2007)
	Orange‐winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica)	1	NR	A0452	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell lymphoma	de Wit et al. (2003)
	Yellow‐naped Amazon (Amazona auropalliata)	1	mAb	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic membranous	NR	NR	Psittacine spleen (SNR)	T‐cell lymphoma	Souza et al. (2008)
	Yellow‐headed Amazon (Amazona oratrix)	1	NR	NR	NR	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell leukemia	Osofsky et al. (2011)
	Macaw (NOS)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	Bursa, spleen, thymus used as positive tissue controls for another case	Positive control	Le et al. (2017)
	Macaw (Ara sp.)	3	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Bursa, spleen, thymus used as positive tissue controls for other cases	Positive control	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Red‐and‐green Macaw (Ara choloropterus)	1	NR	NR	NR	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell leukemia	Hammond et al. (2010)
	Catalina macaw (Ara macao X Ara ararauna)	1	NR	NR	NR	Positive	NR	NR	NR	T‐cell lymphoma	Hausmann et al. (2016)
	Barred Parakeet (Bolborhynchus lineola)	2	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	White Cockatoo (Cacatua alba)	1	Rabbit pAb	NR	NR	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Avian spleen (SNR); lymphocytes (internal control)	B‐cell lymphoma	Rivera et al. (2009)
	Salmon‐crested Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Pacific Parrotlet (Forpus coelestis)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	NR	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	1:1,000	NR	Lymphocytes (internal control)	B‐cell lymphoma	Parmentier et al. (2017)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	8 (3 controls)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	6	NR	NR	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	1:400	HIER	Internal controls in bird tissues (NOS); avian spleen and bursa; canine lymph node	Unique pulmonary tumor	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	19 (3 controls)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Bronze‐winged Parrot (Pionus chalcopterus)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Scaly‐headed Parrot (Pionus maximiliani)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Rosella (Platycercus sp.)	4 (3 controls)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Golden‐collared Macaw (Primolius auricollis)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Lymphocytes (internal control); bursa, spleen, and thymus from a macaw and a Congo African grey	B‐cell lymphoma	Le et al. (2017)
	Golden‐collared Macaw (Primolius auricollis)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, Ara sp.) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Rose‐ringed Parakeet (Psittacula krameri)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	Bursa, spleen, thymus used as positive tissue controls for another case	Positive control	Le et al. (2017)
	Parakeet (Pyrrhura sp.)	4 (3 controls)	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Green‐cheeked Parakeet (Pyrrhura molinae)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic to membranous	1:400	HIER	Psittacine (n = 3, conspecific or congeneric) and chicken (n = 1) bursa, spleen and thymus; canine lymph node	IHC evaluation of psittacine lymphoma	Gibson et al. (2021)
	Passeriformes
	Java Sparrow (Padda oryzivora)	1	Rabbit pAb	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	NR	Thymic lymphoma	Yu and Chi (2015)
	House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)	4	NR	NR	Zymed	Membranous	NR	EIER	Hardarian glands, spleen from same species and American goldfinch	Atoxoplasmosis	Cushing et al. (2011)
	Atlantic Canary (Serinus canaria)	“Several”	NR	NR	NR	Positive	1:100	HIER	Mammalian and avian control tissues (NOS)	Atoxoplasmosis	Maslin and Latimer (2009)
	American Goldfinch (Spinus tristis)	5	NR	NR	Zymed	Membranous	NR	EIER	Hardarian glands, spleen from same species and house sparrow	Atoxoplasmosis	Cushing et al. (2011)
	American Robin (Turdus migratorius)	1	Rabbit pAb	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic and membranous	1:250	HIER	NR	Thymoma	Sanchez‐Godoy et al. (2020)

CD8	Galliformes
	Green Peafowl (Pavo muticus)	1	mAb	NR	Novocastra Laboratories	Positive	NR	NR	Internal and external positive controls (NOS)	Marek’s disease lymphoproliferation	Ranjbar and Khordadmehr (2018)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	1	Mouse Ab (anti‐chicken)	733139	Beckman Coulter	Positive	1:100	HIER	Marek’s disease skin tumors used as positive tissue control for another case	Positive control	Neagari et al. (2011)
	Okinawa Rail (Hypotaenidia okinawae)	3 (2 controls)	Mouse Ab (anti‐chicken)	733139	Beckman Coulter	Positive	1:100	HIER	Spleen and bursa from same species, chicken Marek’s disease skin tumor	T‐cell lymphoma	Neagari et al. (2011)
CD20	Galliformes
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	Chicken bursa	Mixed round cell tumor	Dezfoulian et al. (2012)
CD31	Psittaciformes
	Fischer’s Lovebird (Agapornis fischeri)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Positive	1:200	NR	Blood vessels (internal control)	Hemangioendothelioma	Rossi et al. (2016)
CD79	Anseriformes
	Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula)	19	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Greater Scaup (Aythya marila)	4	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Smew (Mergellus albellus)	1	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Common Merganser (Mergus merganser)	5	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Canada Goose (Branta canadensis)	2	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Mute Swan (Cygnus olor)	5	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Galliformes
	Red‐legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa)	9	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	C7252, HM57	Dako	Positive	1:25	HIER	Spleen and bursa from same species	West Nile virus	Gamino et al. (2016)
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	20	Mouse mAb	M7051	Dako	Positive	1:50	HIER	NR	Marek’s disease	Pejović et al. (2007)
	Charadriiformes
	European Herring Gull (Larus argentatus)	1	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Accipitriformes
	Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo)	1	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Strigiformes
	European Eagle‐Owl (Bubo bubo)	3	Rabbit mAb (anti‐human)	RM‐9118	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Positive	1:20	HIER	Positive control tissue (NOS)	Avian influenza	Bröjer et al. (2012)
	Passeriformes
	Atlantic Canary (Serinus canaria)	“Several”	NR	NR	NR	Positive	1:35	HIER	Appropriate mammalian and avian control tissues (NOS)	Atoxoplasmosis	Maslin and Latimer (2009)
CD117/KIT	Psittaciformes
	Eastern Rosella (Platycercus eximius)	1	NR	NR	NR	Positive	NR	NR	NR	Dysgerminoma	Strunk et al. (2011)
Chromogranin	Psittaciformes
	Eclectus Parrot (Eclectus roratus)f	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐bovine)	NR	DiaSorin	Positive	NR	NR	Adrenal gland used as positive tissue control for another case	Positive control	Ijzer et al. (2002)
COX‐2	Galliformes
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	4	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Accipitriformes
	Harris’s Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)	5	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus)	1	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Strigiformes
	Western Barn Owl (Tyto alba)	2	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Eurasian Eagle‐Owl (Bubo bubo)	2	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Falconiformes
	Lanner Falcon (Falco biarmicus)	1	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus)	4	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus)	1	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Gyr X peregrine falcon (Falco rusticolus X Falco peregrinus)	1	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Psittaciformes
	Turquoise‐fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)	2	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Amazon (Amazona sp.)	3	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	4	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	5	mAb	SP‐21	Thermo Fisher Scientific	Predominately cytoplasmic	1:150	HIER	Canine kidney (macula densa)	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)

Cytokeratin 6	Pelecaniformes
	Pink‐backed Pelican (Pelecanus rufescens)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	LHK6B	Novocastra Laboratories	Positive	1:20	HIER	Chicken skin	Squamous cell carcinoma	Pesaro et al. (2009)
Cytokeratin 8	Gruiformes
	Red‐crowned Crane (Grus japonensis)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	Ks 8.7	Progen	Positive	NR	NR	Intestinal epithelium (internal control)	Intestinal undifferentiated carcinoma	Sakaguchi et al. (2013)
Cytokeratin 8/18	Pelecaniformes
	Pink‐backed Pelican (Pelecanus rufescens)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	5D3	Novocastra Laboratories	Positive	1:20	HIER	Chicken salivary gland	Squamous cell carcinoma	Pesaro et al. (2009)
Cytokeratin 18	Gruiformes
	Red‐crowned Crane (Grus japonensis)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	RGE53	Progen	Positive	NR	NR	Intestinal epithelium (internal control)	Undifferentiated carcinoma	Sakaguchi et al. (2013)
Cytokeratin Pan	Rheiformes
	Greater Rhea (Rhea americana araneipes)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	AE1/AE3; M3515	Dako	Positive	1:200	HIER	Canine mammary carcinoma; chicken liver	Cholangiocarcinoma	Rocha et al. (2015)
	Galliformes
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	8	NR	AE1/AE3	Boehringer Mannheim	NR	5.0 μg/ml	None	NR	Adenocarcinoma	Rodríguez‐Burford et al. (2001)
	Common Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus)	1	Mouse mAb	251788	Abbiotech	Cytoplasmic	1:100	NR	NR	Cholangiocarcinoma	Ozmen (2012)
	Columbiformes
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	mAb	AE1/AE3	NR	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	NR	Teratoma	Hooper (2008)
	Gruiformes
	Red‐crowned Crane (Grus japonensis)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	AE1/AE3	Nichirei	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	Intestinal epithelium (internal control)	Undifferentiated carcinoma	Sakaguchi et al. (2013)
	Accipitriformes
	Chaco Eagle (Buteogallus coronatus)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐bovine)	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	NR	Dog skin	Squamous cell carcinoma	Rocha et al. (2020)
	Strigiformes
	Barred Owl (Strix varia)	1	Mouse mAb	Lu5; MU181‐UC	BioGenex	NR	1:100	EIER	Canine skin	Thyroid carcinoma	Brandão et al. (2012)
	Psittaciformes
	Yellow‐collared lovebird (Agapornis personatus)	1	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Abdominal carcinoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Rosy‐faced lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis)	1	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Squamous cell carcinoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Turquoise‐fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)	3	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Squamous cell carcinoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Orange‐winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica)	4	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Squamous cell carcinoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Yellow‐naped Amazon (Amazona auropalliata)	1	NR	AE1/AE3	NR	Positive	NR	NR	Thyroid gland from same bird	Pericardial mesothelioma	McCleery et al. (2015)
	Red‐lored Amazon (Amazona autumnalis)	1	mAb	AE1/AE3	BioGenex Laboratories	Positive	1:200	NR	NR	Adenocarcinoma	Watson et al. (2013)
	Blue‐and‐yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna)	2	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Basal cell carcinoma (n = 1); cholangiocarcinoma (n = 1)	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Blue‐and‐yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	AE1/AE3; M3515	Dako	Positive	1:40	NR	Tissues (NOS) used as positive control for another case	Positive control	Leal de Araújo et al. (2021)
	Red‐and‐green Macaw (Ara choloropterus)	1	mAb	AE1/AE3	Cell Marque	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	NR	Squamous cell carcinoma	Halley et al. (2020)
	Chestnut‐fronted Macaw (Ara severus)	1	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Squamous cell carcinoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Red‐shouldered macaw (Diopsittaca nobilis)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	AE1/AE3; M3515	Dako	Positive	1:40	NR	Tissues (NOS) from a Blue and yellow macaw	Teratoid medulloepithelioma	Leal de Araújo et al. (2021)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	mAb	LL002	Novocastra Laboratories	Positive	1:20	NR	Normal proventriculus	Proventricular adenoma	János et al. (2011)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	6	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Squamous cell carcinoma (n = 2); basal cell carcinoma (n = 1); renal adenocarcinoma (n = 3)	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus)	1	Mouse mAb	LU5	Biocare	Cytoplasmic	1:100	HIER	Suitable psittacine tissues (NOS); nontumorous epithelial tissue (internal control)	Air sac adenocarcinoma	Loukopoulos et al. (2014)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	6	NR	NR	BioGenex	Positive in 1/6 tumors; positive internal controls in 6/6	1:100	HIER	Epithelium (internal control)	Unique pulmonary tumor	Garner et al. (2009)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	13	Rabbit pAb	68120	MP‐Biomedicals	Cytoplasmic	1:1,000	EIER	NR	Squamous cell carcinoma (n = 9); abdominal carcinoma (n = 1); uropygial gland carcinoma (n = 1); cloacal carcinoma (n = 1); anaplastic carcinoma (n = 1)	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Passeriformes
	Java Sparrow (Padda oryzivora)	1	Mouse mAb	AE1/AE3	Dako	Positive	NR	NR	Hassel’s corpuscles (internal control)	Thymic lymphoma	Yu and Chi (2015)
	American Robin (Turdus migratorius)	1	Mouse mAb	AE1/AE3	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:50	HIER	NR	Thymoma	Sanchez‐Godoy et al. (2020)
Desmin	Galliformes
	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	1	mAb	D33	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	NR	NR	Skeletal muscle (internal control)	Round cell tumor	Dezfoulian et al. (2012)
	Columbiformes
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic	NR	NR	Vascular smooth muscle (internal control)	Leiomyosarcoma	Newman and West (2001)
	Rock Dove (Columba livia)	1	Rabbit Ab (anti‐chicken)	NR	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	1:50	None	Skeletal muscle (internal control)	Rhabdomyosarcoma	Fernández‐bellon et al. (2003)
	Psittaciformes
	Orange‐winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica)	1	Rabbit pAb	D33, PDE‐2203	Euro Diagnostics	Cytoplasmic	1:40	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Puerto Rican Amazon (Amazon vittata)	1	Mouse mAb	NR	BioGenex	Positive	1:80	HIER	Parrot skin and brain (SNR)	Granular cell tumor	Quist et al. (1999)
	Red‐and‐green Macaw (Ara choloropterus)	1	Rabbit pAb	D33, PDE‐2203	Euro Diagnostics	Cytoplasmic	1:40	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	Mouse Ab	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:100	HIER	NR	Granular cell tumor	Hernández et al. (2012)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	3	Rabbit pAb	D33, PDE‐2203	Euro Diagnostics	Cytoplasmic	1:40	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	Mouse mAb	D33	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:100	HIER	NR	Granular cell tumor	Sanchez‐Godoy et al. (2020)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Cytoplasmic	NR	HIER	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Zamani‐Ahmadmahmudi et al. (2015)
	Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	NR	NR	Positive	NR	NR	Vascular smooth muscle and nontumorous skeletal muscle (internal control)	Rhabdomyosarcoma	Gulbahar et al. (2005)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	1	NR	NR	BioGenex	Cytoplasmic	NR	Saponin	Normal positive control tissue (NOS)	Granular cell tumor	Patnaik (1993)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	2	Rabbit pAb	D33, PDE‐2203	Euro Diagnostics	Cytoplasmic	1:40	None	NR	Leiomyosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	1	NR	NR	NR	Positive	NR	NR	NR	Teratoid medulloepithelioma	Fernández and Dubielzig (2015)
	Falconiformes
	Yellow‐headed Caracara (Milvago chimachima)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	D33	Dako	Positive	1:1,000	HIER	Normal striated and smooth muscle (SNR)	Rhabdomyosarcoma	Maluenda et al. (2010)
	Passeriformes
	Sunda Zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	D33, M0760	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:300	HIER	Human muscle tumors	Leiomyosarcoma	Cardoso and Levy (2014)
	Rufous‐bellied Thrush (Turdus rufiventris)	1	Mouse mAb (anti‐human)	D33	Dako	Positive	1:300	HIER	Positive control tissues (NOS)	Hemangiosarcoma	Lima et al. (2016)

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Tags: Pathology of Pet and Aviary Birds

Feb 20, 2024 | Posted by admin in Uncategorized | Comments Off on Advanced Diagnostics

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E‐Cadherin	Accipitriformes
	Harris’s hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus)	1e	mAb	NCH‐38	Dako	Membranous	1:100	HIER	Chicken skin	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Psittaciformes
	Turquoise‐fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva)	2e	mAb	NCH‐38	Dako	Membranous	1:100	HIER	Chicken skin	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Amazon (Amazona sp.)	3e	mAb	NCH‐38	Dako	Membranous	1:100	HIER	Chicken skin	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus)	1e	mAb	NCH‐38	Dako	Membranous	1:100	HIER	Chicken skin	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
	Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)	5e	mAb	NCH‐38	Dako	Membranous (positive in 4/5 cases)	1:100	HIER	Chicken skin	Avian papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma	Jones et al. (2020)
Factor VIII‐related antigen	Psittaciformes
	Fischer’s Lovebird (Agapornis fischeri)	1	NR	NR	Dako	Negative in tumor; positive internal control	1:200	NR	Blood vessels (internal control)	Hemangioendothelioma	Rossi et al. (2016)
	Orange‐winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica)	2	Rabbit pAb	A082	Dako	Cytoplasmic	1:100	EIER	NR	Hemangiosarcoma	Bamac and Arun (2020)
	Orange‐winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica)	1	Rabbit pAb	NR	Dako	Positive	1:500	HIER	Blood vessels (internal control); canine hemangioma	Hemangiosarcoma	Mickley et al. (2009)
	Southern Mealy Amazon (Amazona farinosa)	1	Rabbit pAb (anti‐human)	NR	Dako	Positive	NR	EIER	NR