Clinical Signs

The mammary glands of the mother may or may not be well developed. The offspring attempt to suckle the mother but have no success in getting milk. Both the mother and offspring may become agitated, and the puppies or kittens may cry continuously.

Diagnostic Tests

The mammary glands often look normal on close examination, but no milk is visible on evaluation of the teat canal.

Treatment Options

It is not possible to treat congenital mammary abnormalities, and affected females should not be bred.

In nervous mothers, tranquilizers may be tried, not only to help them relax but because some tranquilizers also increase milk production indirectly. Drugs (such as metoclopramide) that increase the secretion of prolactin, a hormone that helps with milk production, may be given. Metoclopramide must be use cautiously, however, because it may cause hyperactivity or depression.

Suckling by the litter helps stimulate milk let-down. In some instances, when milk production by the mother is adequate, the administration of oxytocin stimulates milk let-down. If the cause of agalactia is poor nutrition or a systemic disease, correction of these conditions may reverse the agalactia.

Follow-up Care and Prognosis

In those mothers with no milk production at all, it often is not possible to reverse the agalactia. In these cases, the offspring must be hand reared. Your veterinarian may recommend that these females not be bred again, because the problem may recur with subsequent pregnancies.

The nervous dam can often be persuaded to allow the offspring to suckle, and milk production may then occur spontaneously. Some of these dogs also respond to oxytocin therapy. For a few days, the offspring may need supplemental feedings. Mothers that suffer from a milk let-down problem may not have the problem with subsequent litters.

Clinical Signs

There are usually no signs directly related to the retained testicle. Most signs are related to the development of one or more tumors within the retained testicle. Dogs with a retained testicle are about 14 times more likely to develop a testicular tumor.

Some tumors produce clinical signs associated with their production of estrogen. Dogs may take on female characteristics such as large nipples, hair loss, decreased size of the prepuce, and attraction of other males. The excess estrogen may also cause anemia, bleeding problems, and prostatic disease.

Testes that are not in the normal location are also more susceptible to testicular torsion (twisting of the testicle around its cord). Testicular torsion usually affects testes retained in the abdominal cavity, because of greater mobility compared with the usual location within the scrotum. Dogs with this condition often present with acute abdominal pain, vomiting, abdominal distention, fever, and lethargy.

Diagnostic Tests

Diagnosis of cryptorchidism, especially in the younger animal, can be difficult due to the location of the testis or its small size. Ectopic testes outside the abdomen can often be palpated (felt with the finger tips), but they are usually smaller than normal, which makes palpation in some cases very difficult. Intra-abdominal testes are almost impossible to palpate unless they are enlarged because they are tumorous or a torsion is present. If a tumor or testicular torsion is suspected, abdominal x-rays or ultrasound help confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment Options

Some medical and surgical attempts (orchiopexy) to move ectopic testes into the scrotum have been largely unsuccessful and probably should not be done, because the condition may be inherited.

Dogs with testicular torsion require stabilization prior to surgery, which is considered an emergency procedure. These dogs often have acute and unrelenting abdominal pain, and they may become seriously ill very quickly.

Follow-up Care

Most animals undergoing cryptorchid surgery do well postoperatively. However, if the surgery is done for a tumor or testicular torsion, the convalescent period is longer, and more intense monitoring and treatment are usually needed.

Clinical Signs

The following are signs of dystocia:

Diagnostic Tests

The diagnosis of dystocia is often derived from the clinical signs and a thorough physical examination. Other tests that may be recommended include x-rays, an abdominal ultrasound, and laboratory tests, such as measurement of blood calcium levels. Low blood calcium may be associated with uterine inertia. Commercially available external whelping monitors can be used to detect diminished fetal viability (fetal stress) and abnormal patterns in the uterine contractions.

Treatment Options

The treatment of dystocia varies, depending on the underlying cause. If a fetus has passed part of the way through the birth canal but is now caught, it may be possible to dislodge the fetus through cautious use of fingers or instruments. Administering a tranquilizer to relieve stress in an apprehensive bitch or queen may be helpful.

If uterine inertia is diagnosed, medical therapy may be attempted, provided that the birth canal is a normal size, the cervix is open, the fetus is not too large to pass through the canal, and no other obstruction is identified. Medical therapy involves administration of the hormone, oxytocin, to stimulate uterine contractions. If calcium levels are low, supplementation of calcium is indicated, because it enhances uterine contractions and increases the effects of oxytocin.

If medical therapy fails, surgery to perform a cesarean section (C-section) is indicated. Your veterinarian may discuss the option of spaying the mother at the time of the cesarean section. If there are no further plans for breeding the mother or if a uterine rupture is present, ovariohysterectomy (spaying) may be recommended.

Follow-up Care and Prognosis

Following resolution of the current dystocia, emphasis must be placed on preventing dystocia during future pregnancies. Such measures include providing consistent and adequate amounts of exercise during the pregnancy and making sure the mother is fed a well-balanced diet.

To increase the chances of an optimal litter size, it is often recommended that bitches be bred 2 days after ovulation. All queens and bitches should be provided a quiet, dark, stress-free, and sanitary birthing environment.

Clinical Signs

The onset of signs is very sudden (acute). Restlessness and panting may be seen early in the disease. Other typical signs include muscle twitching and spasms, pawing at the face, disorientation, weakness and wobbliness, and seizures. The dog may collapse and enter a coma that is followed by death. Muscles spasms and continuous seizures may result in extremely high body temperatures.

Diagnostic Tests

The diagnosis of eclampsia is suspected based on a history or physical evidence that the dog is lactating and the presence of typical clinical signs. Further evidence may include the timing of the onset of signs, the presence of a large litter, and the size of the dog. A blood test may be recommended to measure calcium levels. Low calcium levels or a positive response to the administration of calcium confirms the diagnosis.

Treatment Options

Restoring calcium levels to normal is the goal of therapy. Intravenous calcium is given to those bitches that have severe signs (seizures, continuous muscle spasms, coma). Severely affected dogs often require hospitalization with supportive fluid therapy and measures to lower their body temperature. On discharge from the hospital, the pups are removed from the bitch for 24 hours or longer. The dog may be sent home on oral calcium, vitamin D, and an improved diet.

For those bitches that are only mildly affected, oral calcium supplements and vitamin D may be tried. The puppies may continue to nurse mildly affected dogs, as long as signs do not worsen.

Follow-up Care

If signs were severe or if the signs return or worsen despite therapy, then it is necessary to hand rear the puppies after removing them from the bitch. Should this bitch be bred again, calcium supplementation started at the beginning of lactation may be helpful.

Clinical Signs

An abnormal heat cycle may be noted. The bitch may refuse to breed. Abnormal vaginal discharge can indicate a possible infection of the vagina or uterus. Sometimes no clinical signs are detected, yet the female fails to become pregnant or the puppies are not carried to full term.

Diagnostic Tests

If the heat cycle is normal, the male dog may be the problem and should have its fertility assessed. (See handout on Infertility in Male Dogs.) A general health screening with a physical examination and laboratory tests is also indicated for the bitch. Testing is done for brucellosis. A sample may be collected from the vagina during early signs of heat to check for a bacterial infection. If infection is present, it is treated with appropriate antibiotics. Increasing the chance of a successful breeding by pinpointing the best time to breed can be done by measuring progesterone levels and doing vaginal cell analysis.

If a normal heat cycle is not occurring, then husbandry and nutritional factors must be evaluated. A thyroid function test is also performed when the heat cycle is absent.

Treatment Options

Management strategies may include providing optimal nutrition, parasite control, and adequate preventive medicine, as well as a sanitary environment. Correction of any congenital vaginal abnormalities may allow a natural breeding. Correction of problems detected with various diagnostic tests, such as low thyroid function, infection of the genital tract, or lack of heat cycles, may involve, respectively, thyroid supplementation, antibiotics, or the use of hormones to induce a heat cycle.

A bitch that is positive for brucellosis poses a health risk to all other dogs in the household or kennel, and if complete eradication of the disease is desired, then euthanasia of the infected bitch is necessary. Brucellosis can also be transmitted to humans, especially if they are young, old, or immune suppressed. Individual bitches with brucellosis that are not exposed to other dogs may be treated with spaying and long-term antibiotics.

Optimizing the time of breeding by employing proper breeding practices may correct the infertility problem. Artificial insemination using chilled semen may be needed to ensure a pregnancy. A chromosome test may help define a sexual developmental problem, and affected dogs should be removed from the breeding program.

Follow-up Care and Prognosis

Prognosis depends on the cause of the infertility. Approximately one half of infertility problems can be corrected by combining vaginal cell analysis with measurement of progesterone levels and initiation of better management strategies. Elimination of any genital bacterial infections also improves success. Brucellosis and genetic sexual developmental problems are usually irreversible.

Clinical Signs

Many dogs have no outward clinical signs other than disinterest in the breeding process or inability to complete the act of mating. Decreased thyroid function is suspected in dogs with low energy, weight gain, or symmetrical hair loss. It is sometimes hard to tell whether the male or the female is the source of the infertility problem.

Diagnostic Tests

Often the diagnosis is based on historical evidence that the dog does not breed well or fails to produce a pregnancy. Close observation of attempts to mate and a thorough physical examination may reveal underlying physical problems. A urinalysis, semen analysis, and bacterial cultures may be recommended. Laboratory testing for brucellosis is commonly done. A thyroid hormone test may be performed. Rectal examination, x-rays, and an ultrasound may be recommended to rule out prostatic disease.

It may be helpful to biopsy the testicles or prostate, especially when other, more common causes of infertility are not found. If abnormal libido is present, measurement of testosterone levels in the blood may be helpful.

Treatment Options

Administering certain hormones can help correct poor or diminished libido, and some cases of retroejaculation into the bladder also respond to medications. Surgical correction may be attempted for congenital deformities of the penis and sheath. A chromosome test may help define a sexual developmental problem, and affected dogs should be removed from the breeding program.

Prostatic disease can sometimes be treated successfully, depending on the specific cause. Thyroid supplementation usually corrects hypothyroidism (low thyroid levels) and often reverses the male’s infertility.

Brucellosis cannot be successfully treated and infertility is irreversible in most cases. Euthanasia is often recommended for brucellosis-positive dogs that live in a kennel environment, because they can transmit the disease to other dogs. Brucellosis can also be transmitted to people, especially if they are old, young, or immune suppressed.

Certain behavioral problems may be helped with hormonal supplementation, or natural mating can be substituted with artificial insemination.

Follow-up Care and Prognosis

The successful return to fertility in the male dog depends on the cause of the problem. Dogs with poor semen quality (decreased sperm count or poor sperm motility) are more likely to be successfully treated than those with complete absence of sperm. Dogs with testicles of a normal size and texture are more likely to become successful breeders than those with shrunken or scarred testicles. Sometimes a testicular biopsy helps predict the dog’s ability to return to a fertile status after treatment.

Clinical Signs

Signs vary depending on the cause of the fertility. Some cats lack of any obvious evidence of a normal heat cycle. Other cats remain in heat indefinitely or for prolonged periods. Signs of uterine infection include vaginal discharge, an unkempt hair coat, weight loss, lethargy, abdominal distention, fever, increased thirst, and increased urination.

Diagnostic Tests

Sometimes a diagnosis can be made based on a detailed history given by the owner, combined with physical examination by a veterinarian and a thorough evaluation of the reproductive organs. Laboratory tests, x-rays, and an abdominal ultrasound may be recommended to rule out certain illnesses, such as genital and urinary tract diseases and abnormalities. Testing for contagious diseases, such as feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, and feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) may be done.

Measurement of estrogen-related hormones may help identify infertility related to ovarian cysts or tumors. Measurement of progesterone levels can help identify the stage of the heat cycle the cat is experiencing and whether the cat has ovulated. Hormone levels commonly fluctuate, so tests are usually repeated at various intervals. Interpretation of hormonal assays can be difficult, and the results must be assessed in light of other clinical findings.

Chromosomal assays can be performed for certain genetic problems of sexual development. Certain anatomic abnormalities may only be detected via exploratory abdominal surgery.

Treatment Options

Treatment is directed at the primary source of the infertility and any underlying causes. Options include, but are not limited to, the following measures:

Queens with uterine infections may require surgical sterilization, especially if they are systemically ill.