CHAPTER 7 Lila Miller1,2 and Stephen Zawistowski3,4,5 1 Shelter Medicine, Community Outreach, American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA®), New York, USA 2 College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, USA 3 American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA®), New York, USA 4 Canisius College, Buffalo, USA 5 Hunter College, New York, USA It is generally believed that dogs living in animal shelters are subject to a range of conditions and stimuli that are not conducive to good physical and behavioral health. Whether true or not, there is a growing body of data and anecdotal information that show that appropriate housing and husbandry can mitigate the negative impact of many of the detrimental features commonly attributed to shelters. This would include the stereotypical image of shelters as being overcrowded, understaffed, smelly, dirty, and noisy places. An evaluation of how dogs in animal shelters are cared for must begin with the initial observation that, unless they were puppies born in the shelter, almost all of the dogs are in the shelter because they were removed from where they were living previously. This may be the only life history fact that most shelter dogs have in common. Some dogs may have lived in homes where they received excellent care for both their physical and behavioral needs, whereas others may have been subjected to neglect and abusive treatment. Other dogs may have been strays scratching out a living by scavenging for food and sleeping wherever they could. Between these extremes are a range of conditions that ensure that each dog entering the shelter brings his or her own unique life experience to the shelter. This individual variation presents a challenge to shelters in how they design their physical structures and implement husbandry and care practices. A uniform approach will not provide each dog with the environment they require to attain the best possible welfare while in the animal shelter. Breed, gender, and age have been shown to play a role in the onset and prevalence of poor welfare in kenneled dogs (Stephen & Ledger 2005). For example, younger dogs were more likely to chew their bedding, breeds differed in their tendency to bark, and females engaged in tail chasing sooner than males, though this was a rare behavior. Fear-related behaviors (hiding, escape attempts, and lack of appetite) were observed earlier in the shelter stay than wall bouncing, pacing, and circling. The frequency of the behaviors observed changed over several weeks, with substantial variation between dogs. It is therefore important at all times to evaluate each dog as an individual, so the care and husbandry can be adapted in a way that meets their needs, provides the best possible quality of life while in the shelter, and helps prepare that dog for a successful life in a new home (Coppinger & Zuccotti 1999; Tuber et al. 1999). Introducing dogs to an animal shelter environment is extremely stressful for most dogs (Hiby et al. 2006). Dogs who previously may have lived in a quiet home environment are now confronted with novel experiences, including contact with different humans and animals, and new routines, surfaces, odors, sounds, and diets, among other changes. Stray dogs are now challenged by restrictions on their movements and enforced proximity to other dogs and humans. In each case, the dogs are confronting psychological stressors that are known to activate stress-related physiological responses (Tuber et al. 1999). Some dogs may express their distress by becoming more active, while other dogs may become inactive (Hiby et al. 2006). Several studies have shown that dogs entering shelters will show an elevated plasma cortisol level (Hennessy et al. 1997, 1998), which is one physiological indicator of stress. This research indicates that the elevated cortisol levels will persist for several days, but a brief 20-min positive interaction with a person can have a beneficial effect. This certainly suggests that gentle handling of dogs should begin as soon as they are admitted to the shelter, Regardless of the circumstances that lead to a dog entering a shelter or the dog’s projected outcome, efforts should be made to reduce stress-inducing stimuli, (i.e., excessive noise, random placement with other incompatible animals, rough handling, etc.) and proactively provide comfort. Staff who are administering vaccinations and any prophylactic and targeted treatments must take into account the dog’s behavior and demeanor as well as their physical condition to minimize their stress when handling them. All in all, when considering animal welfare, positive contact with humans may be the single most significant variable in husbandry for dogs in a shelter environment. Dog husbandry and housing in shelters has changed over the years to parallel the changes in veterinary care and animal sheltering that have gone from essentially “one size fits all” to adapting to meet the needs of the individual animal. In veterinary medicine, this is reflected in how vaccination protocols are now designed to fit an animals’ age, immune status, lifestyle, and risk of exposure to disease and how optimum feeding protocols now require matching nutrition to the life stage and health condition of the animal. In animal shelters, the change is reflected in how animals are increasingly housed and fed according to their individual needs. Hubrecht asserted that a good housing system for dogs should allow them to have an element of choice, to manipulate and chew safe objects and provide opportunities for human and canine socialization (Hubrecht 1993). The Association of Shelter Veterinarians’ (ASV) Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters are based on the Five Freedoms (see Appendix 3) that were originally developed in 1985 for farm animals in confinement conditions in the UK but were found to be appropriate for shelter animals as well (Newbury et al. 2010). While all the freedoms are important, the second and fourth freedoms are particularly appropriate for housing shelter animals. The second Freedom states that animals must be “free from discomfort by providing an appropriate environment, including shelter and a comfortable resting area,” and the fourth Freedom states that animals must be “free to express normal behaviors by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal’s own kind.” Specifically, the ASV Guidelines state that “primary enclosures must provide sufficient space to allow each animal, regardless of species, to make normal postural adjustments, for example, to turn freely and to easily stand, sit, stretch, move their head without touching the top of the enclosure, lie in a comfortable position with limbs extended, move about and assume a comfortable posture for feeding, drinking, urinating and defecating. In addition, cats and dogs should be able to hold their tails erect when in a normal standing position. Primary enclosures should allow animals to see out but should also provide at least some opportunity to avoid visual contact with other animals” (Newbury et al. 2010). The British Veterinary Association (Animal Welfare Fund), The Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experiments, The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (BVAAWF/FRAME/RSPCA/UFAW) Joint Working Group on Refinement recommended “providing an enriched environment for dogs which permits them to express a wide range of normal behaviour and to exercise a degree of choice, and on combining this with a socialization, habituation and training programme” (Prescott et al. 2004). Both of these guidelines represent a departure from many previous recommendations for appropriate dog housing that focused on space designations only. Although it has been theorized for years that poor housing can lead to behavior problems in dogs, many facilities continue to house them in small, unenriched cages that do not take into account the importance of enrichment and do not permit the dog to make normal postural adjustments or exhibit normal behavior. Single, small, unenriched cages typically reflect a regulatory or engineering approach to caring for dogs that uses minimal space recommendations based on the dog’s size rather than a results-oriented welfare approach that considers the importance of providing for behavioral needs. If a minimal space approach is used for dog housing, Schlaffer and Bonacci (2013) recommend providing between 35 and 64 ft2 of space per dog. This space is best configured for an individual dog’s welfare as 8 ft by 8 ft2 rather than the traditional long and narrow 4 ft wide by 16 ft long runs typically encountered in older designs. But in addition to reconfiguring and increasing the amount of space for each dog, providing social contact and environmental enrichment is critical for their well-being. The primary enclosure should be large enough to provide the dog with bedding or a bed, a platform (bedding may be placed on the platform if the dog indicates a preference to sleep there), toys, and a hiding place. There is no compelling evidence that simply enlarging the space without providing enrichment and social engagement will result in increased activity or better welfare. See Chapter 8 for more information about ways to enrich the environment. The primary enclosure, regardless if it is a pen, cage, condo unit, or double-sided compartment, should be made from durable nonporous materials that are easily disinfected, safe, and sturdy, with no jagged or sharp edges that can injure the inhabitant. Wood should be avoided in primary enclosures and animal areas as it cannot be effectively disinfected and can be damaged by chewing. If the enclosure contains a drain, it should be covered to prevent digits from getting trapped in its holes. Floors should be solid, preferably with a nonslip finish. Wire floors are not recommended (Prescott et al. 2004; Newbury et al. 2010) and should actually be avoided to prevent foot injuries and general discomfort. Dogs have a highly developed sense of smell, which is key to communication and hunting. They examine the mouth, feces, urine, and anal and genital regions of their conspecifics by smell. Dogs emit a variety of scents in urine, through scent glands between their toes and anal region, and via pheromones. They establish their identity and social status through scent marking. They use their sense of smell in food selection, and it plays an important part in their sense of taste. They are very sensitive to trace odors that may not be noticed by humans. An interest in sniffing the ground is a sign of good behavioral health and is seen more commonly in group-housed dogs than singly housed dogs (Hubrecht et al. 1992). Because group housing promotes an interest in the environment, it may offer a distinct welfare advantage over single housing of dogs, especially for those dogs who are motivated by social interaction. However, dogs who are uncomfortable with other dogs may find group housing to actually be more stressful. Chemicals that are used to sanitize dog enclosures should be approved for use in animal areas, and prepared and applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions. In addition to toxicity concerns, it should be remembered that dogs will be much more sensitive to odors that may be virtually undetectable (or even seem pleasant) to humans. The use of aversive-smelling cleaning products should be avoided (Rooney et al. 2009). It has been suggested that aromatherapy may be useful to calm dogs. Dog appeasing pheromone, known as DAP, has been used with mixed results to calm dogs and relieve anxiety. Tod et al. (2005) indicate that DAP continuously administered over a 7-day period can help reduce some behavioral indicators of stress in kenneled dogs, resulting in increased resting and sniffing behaviors and decreased barking. A suggested protocol for shelters interested in using DAP might begin with a test trial in one section of the facility and an evaluation of its benefits before committing to a large-scale application. It is important to keep in mind that if a shelter has a high-efficiency ventilation system that generates 10–15 air exchanges per hour in the kennel area, circulating DAP may be quickly removed from the environment. In addition, natural pheromones may mute the impact of DAP, so shelters with limited resources may find it is not a useful investment. Essential oils may also provide beneficial effects for dogs in shelters. Lavender and chamomile encouraged more time resting and a sense of relaxation and behaviors that are likely to be desired by potential adopters (Graham et al. 2005). The scents may also appeal to visitors, enhancing their perception of the shelter. Alternatively, rosemary and peppermint stimulated more standing, moving, and vocalization. A veterinarian should be consulted before using any essential oils, as some that are beneficial (or harmless) to humans may be toxic to dogs. For example, according to the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center, tea tree oil can cause severe poisoning in dogs. Side effects of dermal exposure to significant amounts of tea tree oil may include loss of coordination, muscle weakness, depression, and possibly even a severe drop in body temperature, collapse, and liver damage. If the oil is ingested, potential effects include vomiting, diarrhea, and, in some cases, seizures. If inhalation of the oil occurs, aspiration pneumonia is possible. Anise and clove oils that are used for scent training have also been found to be potentially toxic to dogs, depending on dose and form of exposure (http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/poison-control-okay-or-no-way). Although these oils may be intended for use for aromatherapy only, careless handling could result in some of these oils being spilled or coming into inadvertent contact with the dog’s skin and then being licked off and ingested. Staff should be made aware that excessive noise, including barking, is harmful to both human and dog hearing and can cause stress that is detrimental to welfare. It must be remembered that dog hearing is substantially more sensitive than human hearing and dogs confined in enclosures may be exposed to the noise for prolonged periods of time. Exposure to noises such as firecrackers, car alarms, sirens, etc., or prolonged construction and building maintenance noise, including ventilation systems, can all compromise an animal’s welfare (Patterson-Kane & Farnworth 2006). In one case known to the authors, a community was asked to relocate its annual Fourth of July fireworks at a distance away from the shelter because of the negative effect it had the prior year on the confined population of animals as well as the community’s pets. All efforts should be made to make certain that animals are protected from loud noise or offered opportunities to hide and be reassured by staff and to also ensure that all other concomitant stressors are minimized, such as changes in husbandry routines. One of the most common sources of noise in an animal shelter is likely to be the dogs themselves. Dogs will bark for a wide range of reasons including being over- or understimulated. Studies have shown that sound levels in a shelter can exceed 100 dB on a regular basis (Sales et al. 1997; Coppola et al. 2006). Occupational Safety and Health Administration recommends that humans wear protective gear when exposure to noise exceeding 97 dB occurs for 3 h per day (OSHA 2014), yet dogs with more sensitive hearing than humans may be exposed to these levels and higher for much longer periods of time. Cleaning procedures (banging cage doors and clattering of buckets and equipment) and poor shelter design can contribute to loud noise levels as well. Regular or continuous exposure to sound at these levels is stressful and can have a profound negative impact on the physical and psychological health of animals. Long-term exposure to noise levels in this range (over 6 months) has been shown to cause measureable detriment to the hearing of dogs (Scheifele et al. 2012). Sound abatement in animal shelters can be a challenge since the nonabsorbent surfaces that facilitate good sanitation also tend to reflect rather than absorb sound. Staff should be trained to work as quietly as possible to keep noise levels at a minimum. It can also be helpful to group house dogs since this seems to sometimes reduce barking (Hetts et al. 1992). In the authors’ experience, it is helpful to observe the dogs in a kennel ward to determine if there are specific dogs who seem to instigate a barking chorus. Moving those dogs to a different or more isolated area of the ward or providing them with additional enrichment or a kennel mate are all options that may be useful. It is not completely understood why music affects animal stress and behavior. In humans, music has been shown in some cases to improve mood, promote sleep, and decrease stress, agitation, anxiety, heart rate, blood pressure, pain perception, etc., but more studies of the effect of music on various species of animals are needed (Kogan et al. 2012). Music may mask some objectionable noises or even break a silence that may be monotonous and boring. Soft classical music has been shown to have a soothing effect on some dogs (Wells et al. 2002; Kogan et al. 2012). In Kogan’s study, silence was observed most commonly when classical music was played and the least when no music was played. However, staff often undermine this calming effect by playing their own favorite loud music to drown out barking, which only serves to increase noise and stress levels. In fact, in some cases, music may actually act as a stressor for dogs. If music is used in a confinement setting to decrease stress, content should be approved by management, played softly at conversational levels (about 60 dB or less) only when dogs are active, and dogs should be observed closely to make sure that it is not having a negative impact (Patterson-Kane & Farnworth 2006). Nonmusical, white noise was shown in one study to reduce the amount and intensity of barking in laboratory-housed dogs (Kilcullen-Steiner & Mitchell 2001). Music or white noise should never be on for 24 h or when dogs are sleeping. Loud machinery and equipment should be located at a distance away from all animal enclosures. Dog enclosures should be located at a distance away from cat housing to minimize the negative impact barking has on them. Sound-muffling and absorbent materials and acoustic panels should be used to reduce noise levels. Sound-absorbing baffles may also be hung from the ceiling to help reduce noise levels. Practices such as slamming cage doors should be avoided, especially during cleaning and when dogs are inside the cage. Since some dogs are more likely to bark when staff, other animals, and visitors pass by, these more reactive dogs should be housed away from doors; partial visual barriers can be used to help prevent them from seeing this activity. The kennel area should be well lighted to facilitate husbandry procedures. Lighting systems should be in good working condition. The flicker of a poorly functioning fluorescent light or the buzz of a defective lighting ballast is generally considered aversive by people and would also likely be aversive for dogs. Lighting should be provided on a diurnal cycle to allow for both light and dark periods for the dogs. The light periods will obviously need to coincide with when dogs are awake, when staff are caring for them, and when the public may be searching for a dog who may have been lost or considering a dog for adoption. The most convenient cycle is usually 12 h of light and 12 h of darkness. Dogs will develop activity cycles as a result of the lighting cycle. If natural light is provided by the use of windows or skylights, it is important to keep track of the sun’s path throughout the day to ensure that individual kennel spaces are not subjected to excessive sun and possible overheating and that dogs are moved or able to find shade at will when adverse conditions are encountered. The sun’s path will vary with the season, so this will need to be checked on a regular basis. There is limited evidence on the benefits, or detriments of natural versus artificial light, or specific concerns regarding the type of artificial light that might be used, including incandescent, fluorescent, compact fluorescent bulbs, or light-emitting diode. There is some evidence that dogs with indoor/outdoor housing options and who are exposed to natural sunlight will more strongly synchronize their activity cycle to light/dark periods. It is thought that this may be due to the brighter sunlight and the more gradual transition from light to dark that occurs outdoors when compared with the instantaneous transition from light to dark or dark to light using a timed lighting system (or light switch) indoors (Siwak et al. 2003). Dogs should be able to see out of the enclosure to satisfy their natural curiosity. If the visual stimulus results in excessive barking, a partial visual barrier or partition that does not totally obscure their ability to see out of the enclosure may be necessary. Also, if an enclosure is near a door or other highly trafficked area that stimulates excessive activity or barking, it may be necessary to move the dog to another enclosure. Wells and Hepper (1998) indicate that dogs who are allowed to see other dogs will take advantage of the opportunity. They will position themselves in their kennel to facilitate the observation of other dogs. This frequently results in dogs who are at the front of their pen, a position that may improve the dogs’ chances of being adopted. Visual contact with other dogs had no effect on dog activity or vocalization in this study. Small cages designed to house one dog, or single, crate-like cages, as illustrated in Figure 7.1, are commonly found in shelters. The advantages of placing dogs in small single cages are that they prevent fighting, allow the staff to closely monitor individual health, including eating, drinking, bowel movements, etc., and theoretically reduce disease transmission by eliminating direct contact between animals. They also are advantageous for dogs who are uncomfortable with other dogs, are injured, severely diseased or debilitated, or need restricted movement. However, there are many disadvantages to this model that outweigh their advantages. Because disease transmission occurs via a variety of mechanisms in addition to direct contact, simply placing dogs in small single cages does not eliminate disease spread. The most common method of disease spread is via fomites or inanimate objects, including feces, urine, animal secretions, human hands, clothing, toys, cleaning and medical equipment, etc. Single cages are actually more likely to facilitate disease spread because the additional animal handling required to move them in and out of cages during sanitation procedures creates more occasions for animals and staff to spread disease via fomites. An unpublished study by UC Davis showed that dogs housed in double-sided compartments in a shelter demonstrated a strong preference to defecate away from their resting and eating area whether they were previously house trained or not (www.sheltermedicine.com 2014). Single cages are often too small to provide sufficient space to separate resting, sleep, and food areas from elimination areas or to include enrichment essentials such as a bed, platform, or hiding place. They also do not allow for choice or expression of normal behaviors. Cages are often made of stainless steel, fiberglass, or other nonporous materials that permit ease of cleaning and disinfection but do not provide for comfort or noise reduction. Singly housed dogs who are socially isolated and housed in unenriched environments have been found to have low overall activity, are more passive, are more likely to become bored or frustrated, and have a tendency to exhibit stereotypical circling and increased behavioral abnormalities (Hubrecht 2002; Prescott et al. 2004). Figure 7.1 Example of single unenriched cage where there is insufficient space to separate the food and resting area from excrement and introduce any enrichment articles, and the dog has no choices and cannot perform normal behaviors or postural adjustments. Reproduced with permission from L Miller. © L Miller.
Housing, husbandry, and behavior of dogs in animal shelters
Introduction
Admission to the animal shelter
General housing considerations
Behavior and sensory factors to consider for dog housing
Smell
Hearing
Vision
Types of primary enclosures
Small, single cages
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