CHAPTER 11 Sandra Newbury University of Wisconsin School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, USA Take a few moments to consider the normal activities of cats. For a house cat, the morning may start in bed, warm and curled into a soft blanket, or even better the curve of a familiar human limb. Late mornings may necessitate waking the human who has overslept so that feline needs for affection and food can be met on schedule. The cat rises from the same spot each morning, stretches, and walks through the house to where the food is kept (or delivered), complains that the bottom of the bowl is visible, snacks on breakfast, walks to the litter box, eliminates, carries on through the house to investigate and participate in the morning’s activities and eventually makes a choice to stretch out, hopefully in the sun on something soft, and drifts back to sleep. Cats living in a home tend to fill the space with their daily activities in much the same way humans fill the space. Visualize colored trails left behind like strings by cats and humans moving through the space of a house or apartment or even outside. All the movements involved in making those trails keep the cat’s lymphatic system circulating and helps to maintain health, physically and behaviorally. Cats may even be inclined to utilize additional, elevated, out of the way or unused human space for napping, hiding out or resting, which stretches their range even wider than the range of the human inhabitants of the house despite their smaller size. For some cats, the colored trails may even regularly expand outdoors to greater heights and distances as well as a multitude of opportunities for stealthy concealment. A study of activities and ranges for outdoor cats found cats had large territorial ranges and moved through many different types of landscapes. One unowned cat had a range of 547 ha (over 1000 acres). While the owned cats had much smaller home ranges, the mean for those males, was still several acres (Horn 2011). Now visualize taking all of those feline activities and compressing the space in which they take place into the space of one small room, maybe the size of a small hotel room or a bathroom. Remove all the familiar sights, sounds, smells, and other sensations. The cat can and does still move freely within the space. Muscles continue to be engaged in jumping, walking, and stretching. Visualize trailing colored lines again and notice how they begin to fill the space more fully as the cat moves through it. Soft blankets and maybe even sunshine are available. Compress further into the space of a shower stall or small but ample cabinet. Visualize the cat along with all its colored trails squeezed within this smaller space. Remove the human from within the living space. Add a host of unfamiliar visual, auditory, and olfactory information. Change the schedule of daily routines, and the transformation to living arrangements in many animal shelters is completed. Housing is an ongoing and constant, 24-h experience for shelter cats. For better or worse, the quality of the housing a cat experiences may have the single greatest potential to impact well-being. It is rare for shelters that house cats to be able to avoid this compressive effect of space, the associated separation of human space from cat space, or the potentially disorienting effects of coming into a bustling organization scrambling to get everything done. But it is possible to minimize and compensate for each of these effects, helping to support cats’ health and behavior while ultimately maximizing the ability of the organization to save lives. Feline behavioral response to housing is important from a welfare perspective alone. When behavioral needs are not met, animal well-being suffers. The Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters (Newbury 2011) identifies an appropriate environment as one that includes shelter and a comfortable resting area, in which animals have control over their environment; are free from distress; and have the ability to express normal, species-typical behaviors. The guidelines go on to say, “Stress induced by even short-term confinement in an animal shelter can compromise health; and when confined long-term animals frequently suffer due to chronic anxiety, social isolation, inadequate mental stimulation and lack of physical exercise” (Newbury et al. 2011). Hiding, seeking social companionship, mental stimulation, and aerobic exercise are all important coping mechanisms, becoming especially crucial in stressful environments. Numerous studies and publications support these statements (Fox 1965; Hennessy et al. 1997; Tuber et al. 1999; Patronek & Sperry 2001; Stephen & Ledger 2005). When behavioral needs go unmet, abnormal behaviors may be exacerbated. Shelter staff should be trained to recognize behavioral signs of successful adaptation as well as stress in cats (Newbury et al. 2011). Some normal behaviors include grooming, playing, stretching, and laying out, scratching, eating, appropriately eliminating, and interacting. Some abnormal behaviors and signs of stress peculiar to shelter cats include sitting, sleeping, or hiding in the litter box; facing away into a wall of a cage; marked inactivity or feigned sleep; persistent hiding; inappetence; reluctance to eliminate; excessive vocalization and hyperactivity; grooming that is inconsistent or lacking; arousal aggression; and constant attempts or struggling to escape (McCobb et al. 2005; Newbury et al. 2011). These behaviors can be important clues to help determine how successfully an animal is adapting to or coping within their environment. Abnormal behaviors likely decrease a cat’s chances for adoption since an animal’s behavior is a key factor for selection (Fantuzzi et al. 2010). In addition to all these, cats have a unique relationship with stress because of feline herpes virus. Some studies suggest that over 80–90% of cats entering shelters are likely to have been previously infected by feline herpes virus that has consistently been demonstrated to be a primary pathogen in feline upper respiratory infections (URI) (Veir 2008). Infection may be mild or severe, most cats will recover, but once infected, the virus will persist in a large proportion of those cats, with no clinical signs, quietly residing in nerve ganglion until reactivated in a process called recrudescence (Gaskel et al. 1985). Viral recrudescence of feline herpes virus is directly activated by the stress hormone cortisol, drawing a fairly clear connection between behavioral and physical well-being for cats. What this means is that even though feline URI is an infectious disease, in animal shelters, it is most commonly related to stress and less commonly associated with new exposure to pathogens. Since most cats arrive already infected, minimizing stress that could trigger recrudescence is critical. Stress is a major factor threatening cat health and well-being in animal shelters and confinement housing is potentially a major source of stress. This is not to say there is no need to limit exposure to infectious disease for cats in shelters. Clearly, there are many pathogens present in shelters that can cause problems for cats. But balance is essential between protection and stress reduction with stress reduction being a much more key player in many cases. The good news is that many of the recommendations outlined here to reduce stress by supporting normal behaviors will also reduce infectious disease exposure risk as well. Along with the balance between protection from exposure and stress reduction, shelters also need to constantly weigh the need to serve an appropriate number of animals against the need to allocate an appropriate amount of space for each one. All of these must be balanced with resources available to provide care. In considering this balance between housing numbers and size of housing units, often the first most important question to ask is: How many housing units are really productively needed? Making estimates for daily capacity needs based on shelter data showing the numbers of cats coming in and leaving the shelter along with their expected length of stay can offer key insights into these figures. Methods for making housing capacity estimates have been described in previous publications (Newbury & Hurley 2013) and in several online instructional webinars. These estimates can be extremely valuable since in some cases realizing a practical need to house fewer animals (with no ill effects on life-saving capacity) may mean that the quantity and thus the quality of space available to each cat improves dramatically. The length of time animals stay in the shelter has an enormous impact on how this balance plays out. While math and shelter statistics may not be an expected tool for understanding feline behavior, they are often key to meeting the behavioral needs of cats in shelters. Ideally, capacity for housing should be large enough to accommodate animals during their legal holding period, those receiving treatment, and those who are available for placement, but should not be so large (compared to the number of likely positive outcomes) that animals inevitably wait for extended periods before being selected for placement (either adoption or transfer). In addition, needs for adequate space and social interaction must be balanced with protection from infectious disease and the potential stressors of cohousing and new introductions. Safety of animals within their enclosures is the responsibility of the shelter. The Association of Shelter Veterinarians Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters (Newbury 2011) articulates specific safety considerations. The primary enclosure must be structurally sound and maintained in safe, working condition to properly confine animals, prevent injury, keep other animals out, and enable the animals to remain dry and clean. There must not be any sharp edges, gaps or other defects that could cause an injury or trap a limb or other body part. Secure latches or other closing devices must be present. Wire-mesh bottoms or slatted floors in cages are not acceptable for primary enclosures for cats and dogs. (Newbury 2011, p. 7) Several studies have shown that the quantity of floor space available to cats in caged housing can have an impact on health and well-being. Space recommendations for cats in group housing are higher and will be described below. One study found that cats were less stressed when given 11 ft2 of floor space compared with cats given only 7.5 ft2 (Kessler & Turner 1999b). Recent UC Davis Koret Shelter Medicine Program research “Environmental and Group Health Risk Factors for Feline Respiratory Disease in Animal Shelters” documented lower risk for URI in shelters that provided housing with greater than 9 ft2 of floor space compared to shelters that provided less than 8 ft2. (This study is currently in preparation for publication). Shelters and cage manufacturers frequently question whether these floor space recommendations can be met by adding shelving to increase additional off the floor horizontal space. The details in the following text regarding how the space is used clarify the need for clear, continuous floor space rather than a cumulative quantity. Recommendations in the Association of Shelter Veterinarians Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters do not recommend specific dimensions but rather use the Five Freedoms as a guideline for determining if enclosure size is adequate based on outcomes or observational assessment of an animal’s ability to make normal postural adjustments such as: Cats have some variation in physical size but the range in adult cats is fairly consistent at least when compared to dogs which simplifies making general recommendations about enclosure size. However, some substantial range in size may exist with common adult cat body weights starting from about a slight 6 lb up to the occasional imposing 30 lb feline, so some consideration of individual size match to enclosure is still needed. While Wikipedia reports the smallest adult cat ever recorded weighed 3 lb and the largest weighed 47 lb, average body weight is between 9 and 11 lb (Mattern & McLennan 2000). Cat height, not including the tail, tends to be about 9–10″ high. Body length (not including the tail) is about 18–20″ while the tail is commonly about 12″. In order to allow most cats to make the normal postural adjustments described above, at least 28″ by 30″ of clear floor space is needed. A rectangular with those dimensions provides a diagonal of a little more than 40″. Objects within the enclosure, although desirable, take up floor space and may interfere with postural adjustments like stretching out or posturing for elimination. Space taken up by food and water dishes, litter boxes, or hiding dens should not be considered clear floor space, but floor space should be large enough to accommodate these items (Figure 11.1) Figure 11.1 Cage diagram. A minimum width of about 3 ft is generally recommended for a main compartment (at least two compartments are recommended). The height should be high enough to allow a cat to stand on its hind legs and fully extend its front legs without touching the roof of the enclosure, at least 30″ with at least one elevated perching space that will not interfere with this ability to stretch or posture for elimination. This height will also accommodate the cat standing on the floor with tail held erect without touching the top of the enclosure. The second compartment should be large enough to accommodate a litter box large enough for the cat housed in the enclosure (see the following text). These minimum recommendations attempt to limit the interference with animal needs during confinement that is expected to be short term. The ASV Guidelines for Standards of Care in Animal Shelters suggests a short-term stay is 1–2 weeks. Enclosure size considerations must balance resources invested, the numbers of animals who need housing, the length of stay, and the available space without adversely compromising animal needs. As discussed previously (How many housing units do you need?), carefully considering alternatives to intake, minimizing length of stay, and determining the number of animals who can productively be housed may reveal that fewer enclosures are necessary, allowing for enclosure size to grow and exceed these minimum recommendations. Allocating more space to enclosures for cats may actually decrease other space needs in the shelter for things like interaction rooms or counseling rooms. For example, if every enclosure is large enough to accommodate a human entering to clean and sit in a chair for quiet interactions, potential adoption interactions as well as socialization could all happen within the actual enclosure. Many shelters consider room housing only for groups but room housing or room-like enclosures are ideal to support normal behavior and activities, are easily spot cleaned, and allow cats to interact with adopters in a non-novel environment where they are likely to be more at ease (Group housing will be discussed later). Although most cat housing in shelters in the USA is indoors, outdoor housing may be used very successfully either as stand-alone units, rows of enclosures, outdoor enclosures that back to a building structure, or outdoor attachments to indoor enclosures (see section “Controlled access to outdoor space”). Outdoor housing is preferable behaviorally for cats who are accustomed to living outdoors, especially if they are not socialized to humans (see special considerations for unsocialized or “feral” cats below). Outdoor enclosures can also provide excellent air quality and many opportunities for enrichment. Enclosures may be designed to house individuals or small groups of cats (see section “Special considerations for group housing”). Outdoor fenced in housing units should be based with a concrete floor or other similar surface that can be readily disinfected. Flooring should slope gently to a drain to facilitate cleaning and disinfection. Walls can be constructed from many materials including chain link or heavy screening. A solid roof should cover the enclosure completely with some overhang to protect cats from the elements and provide shade. If at least one solid wall is present, exposure to winds will be reduced. Short wall panels of at least 3 ft on all sides of the enclosure may give cats more of a sense of security as well as further protection from the elements. PVC corrugated roofing material can be easily attached to chain link with zip ties to serve as a wall panels. A double entry way allows staff to enter easily while keeping cats secure. A full southern exposure (in the Northern Hemisphere) may bring too much sunlight into the enclosure. Orienting housing units or rows of housing units so that they face east and west avoids inescapable overexposure to the sun. Contents of outdoor enclosures should follow the same general guidelines as indoor enclosures with the extra consideration of providing warming areas, shade, or places to cool off where needed. Housing units (also called primary enclosures) must contain everything essential to the cats well-being. Food and water dishes should be kept clean and free of debris and separated from areas of elimination. Cats are fastidious creatures and normally choose to eliminate away from their resting and feeding areas. In one study of confined cats (Bourgeois et al. 2004), maintaining a triangulated distance of 2 ft between feeding area, resting area, and elimination area resulted in better food intake. In fact, the drive to keep elimination away from feeding areas is strong enough in cats that as a response to inappropriate elimination, several publications recommend placing food and water dishes in a the area that has been a problem in order to train cats against eliminating in that spot. Double compartment cages can achieve this separation especially well by providing one section that is the “bathroom” or litter box area and another that is the “living room” containing food and bedding. Cats eliminate an average of five times per day (Sung & Crowell-Davis 2006). Specific behavior patterns are evident when a cat defecates or urinates (Sung & Crowell-Davis 2006). Careful selection of an elimination location, circling, sniffing, digging, and covering are normal and important behaviors surrounding elimination for cats that must be supported by the litter box arrangements within the primary enclosure. The litter box and the area surrounding it must be of sufficient size to easily accommodate the cat. For example, in section “Thinking outside the box,” a review of research on litter box behaviors, Neilson recommends that a 16 lb cat will need a jumbo-sized litter box (Neilson 2004). When the litter box is given a separate compartment, as mentioned above, that area must be large enough not only to accommodate the litter box but also the cat going through all the normal activities surrounding elimination (see also section “Layout and compartmentalization”). Cats are markedly stressed when a litter box or the area that contains the box is too small for carrying out the normal sequence of behaviors and comfortably posturing. In addition, in some cases elimination material may land outside the box even though the cat itself is in the litter. When feces or urine is found outside the box, inappropriate elimination may be incorrectly assumed, which may interfere dramatically with chances for placement and a live outcome. Cats who are stressed about elimination may avoid defecating, which in turn may lead to constipation and inappetence. Weight loss and inappetence in the first week following shelter intake has been shown to have a significant correlation to high stress scores (Tanaka et al. 2012). In another recent UC Davis study of cats within the first 24 h after intake, cats in small cages eliminated less frequently and had a longer time from intake to elimination than cats in larger cages (soon to be published data). Many sources suggest cats prefer uncovered litter boxes, but a 2013 study (Grigg 2013) found cats did not show a significant preference for uncovered boxes compared to covered and suggested that cats be provided with different options so that they can make choices. While providing this choice might be difficult in small enclosures, room-sized enclosures may allow for more than one sort of litter box to be offered. Litter within the box should be maintained at a sufficient depth for cats to dig and bury their urine and feces. One study (Borchelt 1991) showed that unscented, finely particulate matter (“clumping” or “scoopable”) litter is preferred by most cats (Neilson 2004). Most animals prefer soft sleeping surfaces over harder surfaces such as metal (Crouse et al. 1995; Hawthorne & Horrocks 1995); however the entire cage surface should not be taken up with soft bedding since firm, cool surfaces give choice in the environment and provide some ability to thermoregulate. A wide variety of toys and enrichment items are available for cats and should be consistently offered. Research has shown that toys can enhance opportunities for adoption as well as providing enrichment; even if animals do not play with them, toys can attract the attention of adopters (Wells & Hepper 1992; Gourkow & Fraser 2006; Fantuzzi et al. 2010). Scratching pads are important to cats for scent marking and stretching, as well as for grooming their claws. The scratching pad is ideally located at a height where the cat can stand on their hind legs and get a good stretch in their back when scratching. In larger enclosures, this may mean the post itself is that tall; in smaller cage enclosures a smaller usually cardboard pad can be attached to the cage front. Hiding is a natural coping mechanism for cats. Cats may actually be more outgoing when given the opportunity to make a choice for visual concealment. Allowing cats the ability to make choices within their environment can even promote friendlier behavior that may increase the likelihood of adoption (Overall 1997). Hiding area scan be provided by placing a box (cardboard or plastic), a carrier, or even a large paper bag within the housing unit (Figure 11.2). Ideally, the hiding area should be large enough to allow the entire cat to comfortably fit inside (not just the head). Hiding areas can be arranged such that staff can look in on an angle for identification and monitoring. Figure 11.2 Hiding box. Carriers or feral cat dens are sturdier and have the additional benefits of doubling as an elevated resting area, a transport enclosure, or a holding area during cleaning (Figure 11.3). A carrier or den should ideally stay with the cat throughout its shelter stay, starting from intake. Carriers, feral cat dens, or cardboard “Hide Perch & Go” type boxes (see references) can even go home with the cat to ease the transition to its new environment. Figure 11.3 Hiding box used as elevated resting area. In small housing units, careful consideration should be given to adding hard structured items such as hiding boxes, food bowls, or perches that may impede the cats ability to move freely or stretch out within the enclosure. If the housing unit is too small, but contains a shelf, a hiding space can be made by draping a towel over the shelf to create a soft tunnel. A towel can also be draped over an elevated bed to create a hiding space below. If none of the in-cage options will work, placing a cover over half the front of the cage will provide at least some opportunity for the cat to select for visual concealment. Covering only half the cage front allows for ventilation as well as choice to avoid visual contact but a long-term solution to increase enclosure size should be found. As mentioned in the discussion of hiding boxes, many opportunities for concealment may provide elevated resting areas as a kind of side benefit. When considering enclosure design, shelves, boxes, and other elevated structures increase a cat’s ability to use the space available and change their perspective making choices in line with their normal behavior while housed within the shelter environment. Attempts to create elevated areas often fail because the shelving width is too narrow to comfortably accommodate a cat’s body. When elevated areas are too small they go unused. Shelving or other perches should be a minimum of 1 ft deep. Cats benefit from being able to make the choice of exposure to sunlight and fresh air within their primary enclosure. Outdoor sections of enclosures can also be a cost-effective means of substantially improving air quality. This may be accomplished through double sided housing units, where an outside compartment is connected to an interior run or room by a guillotine or a simple flap. Installing a human-sized door as well as a cat door will facilitate cleaning and handling. Single or stacked enclosures for cats can also have an outdoor section connected by a cat flap. In temperate weather, litter pans can be kept in the outdoor half of the housing unit, creating a more pleasant indoor environment for animals and visitors. In general, outdoor areas should be connected to an indoor compartment so that adequately sheltered space is consistently available. For feral cats who have been living outdoors, a warming house in an outdoor enclosure may be preferable to an indoor compartment since cats who have been living outdoors may avoid going into a building (see texts on outdoor enclosures for design recommendations for outdoor areas). If outdoor compartments are not possible, windows that allow in natural light and allow cats to see outside serve as important enrichment opportunities. Adding birdfeeders or flowers that attract bees, butterflies, and other insects near the windows enhance the experience. Windows that open add valuable access to fresh air but should be screened to keep cats in and insects out. Window coverings should be available to block sunlight if necessary. Windows that have blinds protected within two panes of glass can work very well if cats are in cage free enclosures. Layout recommendations for the space and items within the primary enclosure are made in an effort to maximize the space available to the cat for free movement while also establishing separation between areas for feeding, resting, and elimination. A minimum distance of 2 ft has been suggested between these three primary areas creating a triangulated space (Bourgeois et al. 2004). This layout plan helps to keep litter out of food and water bowls and allows cats to rest and eat away from where they eliminate. At least one study has shown that cats eat more when this separation is provided (Bourgeois et al. 2004). Ideally, compartmentalization further delineates the space within the housing unit, creating a distinct separation between elimination area and living area. Compartmentalized division also allows for efficient, easy daily cleaning and care of one section at a time with minimal risk of disease exposure, negative interactions, or disruption for the cats (see section “Minimize disruption during cleaning: spot cleaning
Feline housing
Thinking outside the box
Connecting feline housing, behavioral needs, health, and outcomes
Identifying abnormal behavior in shelter housing
Stress and herpes virus
How many housing units do you need?
Fundamentals of the primary enclosure
Safety
How much space? Floor space and height
Outdoor housing
Contents of the enclosure
Food and water dishes
Litter box
Soft bedding
Toys or other enrichment
Scratching post or pad
Opportunities for visual concealment
Opportunities for elevation
Controlled access to outdoor space
Windows
Layout and compartmentalization
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