Home Range

The home range of a dog is the farthest distance from home that it would normally travel.³² It usually consists of a dense core area, with farther distances used less often.^41,166 The dog turned out each morning will typically have a pattern of travel around the neighborhood. Although an unusual scent trail may cause an occasional deviation, it generally will not affect the normal home range.

In the wild, the size of a home range is influenced by the availability of food.¹⁶⁶ For wolves the size of the home range is correlated with metabolic needs and in proportion to the amount of meat in the diet.¹²⁷ Plentiful amounts and reliable sources of food tend to be associated with smaller home ranges, as in urban areas where home ranges vary from 0.01 to 61.0 hectares (ha) (0.02 to 150.7 acres).^* Dogs in rural areas tend to have larger home ranges of 444 to 1050 ha (1100 to 2600 acres).^109,153,294 These figures correspond to home-range information for free-ranging dogs as well.^125,240,241

The size of a home range also may show seasonal variations, with those of winter being approximately half as large as those of summer.^79,241 Seasonal variations are not, however, always observed.⁸⁰ The size of a home range correlates to neither the dog’s size nor sex, and the home ranges of owned dogs are not significantly smaller than those of unowned dogs.⁷⁹ Abandoned dogs usually remain very near a food source, so their home range averages 0.02 ha (0.049 acres) in size.⁸⁰

The distance of a daily excursion varies from 500 to 8200 m (0.3 to 5.1 miles) for a pack of owned dogs to 10,000 m (6 miles) for feral dog packs.^{108,109,125,294} This movement occurs at approximately equal distances in all directions from the core.²⁷⁸ Activity is primarily in the cool periods of the day, so the pack-group dogs are most active at night and early morning, especially from 8 PM to 11 PM in the evening and 5 AM to 8 AM in the morning.^80,294 Urban dogs are most active when humans are the least—that is, early morning and late in the day^109,278—or at times when people typically turn the dogs out of their homes, like 7 AM and 5 PM.^41,103 Feral dogs are seasonally more active when the weather is cool.¹²⁵

Territory

In general terms, a territory is the part of the home range that is actively defended.^32,103,166 This defense can be by aggressive encounters, vocalization, or threat displays.¹⁶⁶ It is also a space where the boundaries are marked to create olfactory fences. For dogs, the most important area is usually near the core of the home range, where a dog spends most of its time. Barriers like chain link fences can artificially limit the size of both the territory and home range.²⁷⁸

Many, but not all, dogs are very protective of their territory. The intensity of a dog’s threat will increase as an intruder moves closer toward its territory and toward the center of its territory. When a stranger first approaches a territorial boundary, the dog responds with a high-pitched, rapid bark. If the intruder enters the territory, the pitch lowers and the dog’s body language becomes more threatening. As the stranger goes deeper into the territory, the bark may turn to a growl, and the growl may give way to an attack.

The dog is somewhat ambivalent about how aggressively it should defend the edges of a territory, in essence having to weigh the importance of holding the space against the potential for being hurt. But the closer to the center of the territory an intruder approaches, the greater is the shift in importance toward holding the space. For this reason, dogs are often very aggressive in defending small territories such as cars. If the opportunity is available, the average dog territory will consist of 2 ha (4.9 acres), with a 0.65 ha (0.6 acre) core area in which the dog has its favorite resting spots and spends approximately 60% of its time.

Other types of territories can exist. Aggression at a food bowl may occasionally represent the protection of a feeding territory, although it may also be associated with food-protection aggression. Breeding locations, nest sites, and sleeping locations can all be territories defended by a dog.

Distances When Approached

When a dog is approached by a member of a species to which it is poorly socialized, the dog will first become aware of the stranger when it reaches the perceptive distance.³² It may show no visible acknowledgment of this awareness, it may look toward the approaching individual, or it may actually walk a short distance toward the intruder. In this latter case, the actual distance the dog walks forward is the approach distance.³² If the intruder continues to come toward the dog, a point will be reached at which the discomfort is so great that the dog will flee. The distance at which this escape behavior happens is the flight distance.^32,107 The distance the dog runs away from the potential danger is the withdrawal distance.³² In many cases, the dog will then stop, reassess the situation, and leave the area at a somewhat slower pace. If for some reason the dog was unaware of the intruder’s approach or was unable to flee, the dog will attack as the stranger reaches the animal’s critical distance.^32,107 This type of attack usually has the characteristics of fear biting, but the wounds inflicted can be quite serious.

If the approaching individual is recognized by the dog, the aforementioned distances do not apply. Instead, they are replaced by individual, social, and submissive distances. Close associates are allowed within a space immediately surrounding the dog, the individual or personal distance.^32,107 This is the space in which veterinarians must work. If the dog is uncomfortable with a person entering that space, it will try to move away, putting the person into the more remote social distance.³² If the dog is comfortable with the person’s approach, it may show submissive behaviors as the person gets to its submissive distance.³²

Social Orders

Dominant-subordinate relations ultimately promote group harmony and a decreased incidence of agonistic interactions. Disputes can be settled through the use of subtle threats instead of more serious aggression. When puppies are raised together, they can establish their dominance hierarchy over food or play without inflicting serious injury.¹²² Older dogs depend mainly on the language of body positions, with occasional aggressive bouts needed for dominant-personality individuals. Social ranks are generally thought of as having a stair-step order, with each individual a step below the more dominant one above it. This linear A over B over C ranking generally holds true in dogs, although certain positions can be shared by two individuals, and occasionally there can even be a triangular relationship such as A over B over C over A.^32,122

The social hierarchy will be established by 15 weeks of age in 88% of the puppies.^290,291 Dominant puppies control access to the food bowl and other favorite resources. Once the dominant-subordinate relationships are established, there is a reduction in the number of fights and in the seriousness of the play fights.^98,290 Instead, the group members play more often and interact more in general. Siblings recognize and prefer one another to other puppies.¹⁴³ This group may even attack or mock-attack strangers,²⁹⁰ and if raised around members of only one breed, they may direct their attentions more toward the recognized breed of dog.

Once dogs establish a social order, they tend to retain that order, but a few changes can occur over time. After 11 weeks of age, there can be marked differences in hierarchy based on breeds.²⁴³ Some breeds tend to maintain positions once they have been established. Others have a deterioration of rank so that all the puppies again become equals. The most clear-cut differences seem to be in the tendencies for males to be dominant over most females, especially female littermates.^* Litter size, physical size, and relative dominance of the bitch can also influence dominance.^† In trials between Terriers and Beagles, terriers are dominant. They control food availability and, as adults, sire all the puppies.¹⁶⁴ It is also interesting to note that if given a choice for social interaction, both breeds will choose to be with a Beagle as opposed to a terrier.¹⁶⁴ Puppies that are introduced to older dogs typically come in at the bottom of the social order.

In discussions about dog social ranks, there is a tendency to compare it to wolves. Although lessons can be learned by doing this, it is important to be careful not to expect exact duplication. For example, group members are almost all related individuals of different ages. Also, wolves live in packs in which there is a dominance ranking for males and a separate one for females. There is a well-defined alpha wolf that is not only the leader, but also a decision maker, intervening to settle disputes.¹⁰⁸ The highest ranking male and highest ranking female are usually the only two that can successfully mate.¹⁰⁸ It is also noted that for both the male and female social orders, the highest ranking individuals are well defined, but it becomes harder to identify hierarchical positions as you get further from the top.⁵¹ For dogs, we have put them as individuals in a human “pack” with different social rules, surgically neutered the dogs so hormonal influences of social behaviors are removed, and mixed sexes within the “pack.” Dogs do not signal like wolves, complicating interactions even more.⁵¹ Few dogs try to assume an alpha position and readily yield that role to humans. Instead of needing the “put in your place” handling advocated by some trainers, dogs seek a pack leader figure.

Relative dominance is usually tested by giving two dogs access to one bone (Fig. 4-2). The dog that gets possession is considered the higher ranking dog. Adult dogs rarely take bones from young puppies, but by 7 months of age a puppy will always lose its bone to an adult male dog and will lose it 54% of the time to an adult female.⁹³ Between male and female adults, males will gain possession of the bone 2.5 times more often than females. If possession is shared, the male usually has the largest end.⁹³

Figure 4-2 Testing relative dominance of two dogs with access to food (oxtail). Note the relative tail position and the placement of the paw on the food as a sign of possession by the lower ranking dog.

(From Ian Dunbar, Center for Applied Animal Behavior, used with permission.)

Once established, the interdog hierarchy may remain stable for several years with only minor fluctuations occurring, by breed, as mentioned earlier, or during estrus.^18,93,285 If dogs are also studied during interactions with other dogs, it is possible in some cases to find differences between the results of dominance tests with bones and those with social interactions. This result points to more than one type of dominance: dominance can be competitive or social.³⁴² Maintaining possession of a bone, then, is unrelated to physical size.¹⁸ If food is not a strong motivator, an individual may not appear very dominant and yet actually be fairly high ranking socially. A direct correlation has been made between exploratory behavior and competitive dominance.³⁴³

If puppies are raised around humans, humans will usually be viewed as dominant.¹⁰⁵ Humans are viewed as dominant in part because of their relatively greater size and age. Certain individuals, especially from some breeds, are less likely to accept this rank as automatic. Firm but gentle guidance during puppyhood may be necessary to establish a human as the pack leader. Care must be used to ensure that the appropriate lessons are learned but that excessive force is not exerted.

A dominant wolf may pin a subordinate to the ground by the neck.²⁸⁵ Although it has been reported not to be part of the 71 behavior patterns that dogs share with wolves,²⁸⁵ this behavior does occasionally occur in dogs, but more in play than serious altercations (see Chapter 3, Fig. 3-11). Despite its popularity with a few dog trainers, the alpha-roll technique, in which the human pins the adult dog or puppy down on its back, even growling near its neck, is excessive and not appropriate, because it is not a common dog behavior. It can result in a very dominant dog becoming more aggressive or any dog showing aggression because of fear. The dog is also likely to develop a distrust of the person. The individual attempting such a move can be injured by teeth or claws from the fearful dog and may even misinterpret the fear reaction to mean the dog is acting “like an alpha.”

Feral versus Domestic Dogs

Pack behaviors vary somewhat between feral dogs and their domestic relatives, whether the domestic dogs are stray or just loose (free ranging). The term feral is most appropriately applied to a group of animals that have been together long enough that their innate behaviors, physiology, or anatomy have changed from the original domesticated version. True feral populations are generally low, perhaps 2.5% of the free-ranging population.¹⁸³ Most feral individuals are solitary scavengers that participate in a pack for only brief periods under a rigid hierarchy.^108,109,125 When feral dogs do pack together, the pack has up to 10 members,^125,171,294 consisting of two males and six to eight females.¹²⁵ A feral dog pack typically lasts only 1 to 2.5 weeks and has a large dog as its leader.¹²⁵ When a new pack is formed, the lead dog barks loudly until a sufficient number of other feral dogs join.

Canine specializations to accommodate the hunting of large herbivores have developed in parallel with pack-hunting techniques.¹⁷¹ Peripheral dogs may follow this group, but they are not allowed to share any kill. During their travels, the feral dogs will frequently stop to test dominance, but a definite order can be identified, both during travel and when eating. Aggression is rare, with avoidance preferred.^41,79 If aggression does occur, dogs unfamiliar with each other are 5 to 15 times more likely to be involved than familiar ones.⁷⁹

Cases have been recorded in which members of a feral pack suddenly turn on and kill a weak member.¹²⁵ This type of behavior has also been seen in domestic dogs. It has happened in at least two research colonies of geriatric Beagles and in occasional household environments. Because people have not been around to see the actual attacks, precipitating factors are unknown.

Feral dogs can be tamed individually but, like a wild animal, they usually become very aggressive when forced to interact with humans.²⁹⁴ As might be expected, feral dogs have a greater flight distance, are more elusive when being followed, are not active in the morning between 6:30 and 9:00, and systematically forage for food.

Stray dogs are unowned animals that tend to show remarkable plasticity in pack behavior, leading to group stability.¹⁰³ The density of stray dogs reflects this plasticity, varying from 127 dogs to 1304 dogs per square kilometer.¹⁰³ Stray-dog packs tend to be a little smaller than feral packs and have two to three times as many males as females.^79,103,125

Free-ranging (loose but owned) dogs tend to be solitary, but approximately 60% of their dog interactions develop into temporary groups of two to five dogs.^{41,125,183,278} Whereas strays are wary and tend to retreat from humans, free-ranging dogs are more likely to show aggression or bark at humans.²⁷⁸ As many as 60% of these free-ranging dogs are wearing collars.²⁷⁸ Strays have larger flight distances than free-ranging dogs.

Social Maturity

Evolution of canine behavior resulted in sophisticated pack hunting techniques and with them, a group structure based on long-term affiliations.¹⁷¹ Domestication of the wolf to the dog has resulted in other changes, just as Belgaev’s experimental domestication of foxes did.^38,73 Comparisons between identically raised wolf cubs and Malamute puppies suggest that differences can be attributed to the genetic selection for prolongation of juvenile behaviors and morphologic characteristics.¹¹⁵ Changes associated with domestication have resulted in canids that can read human communicative signals.¹³¹ On the negative side, it has also been blamed for the breakdown in ritualized aggression,¹¹⁵ perhaps resulting in the inability of many dog owners to know exactly what to expect in certain situations.

Although dog behavior is similar to wolf behavior, it is not the same, and a wolf may or may not recognize various components of a dog’s behavior.^51,115 Cubs have approximately 100 facial expressions by 18 weeks of age; puppies have significantly fewer.¹⁰¹ Play and social behaviors also differ. Whereas cubs show an increase in both social and solitary play during their first year, the young dog reaches a maximum of play at around 6 months and then decreases.¹⁰¹ In one study, Poodle puppies showed little interaction with the adult males that were part of the group until the females’ first estrus. By comparison, wolf cubs had frequent, nonstressful encounters with adults.¹⁰¹ This difference may have a bearing on the tendency toward unstable social orders in dogs.¹⁰¹ It has been shown that there are considerable differences in social affinity among nonestrous females, each showing an individual pattern of preference.¹⁸ It has also been suggested that the interactions between the puppies and bitch facilitate the appearance of submission and affect later trainability.³⁴⁰

As a social species, dogs develop certain behavior patterns that allow safe interaction among individuals, and these patterns change as dogs age. As with the young of most species, the physical properties of the puppy tend to inhibit aggression by adults. This fact holds true even when the puppy’s playful interactions take on an added play-fighting component by 5 weeks of age.¹²² By 6 weeks of age, the puppy shows most of the species-specific patterns, including the facial-lingual greeting response, the inguinal approach, and the anogenital approach (Figs. 4-3, 4-4, and 4-5).^38,122 At 9 weeks, the pup’s behavior repertoire includes submissive postures, et-epimeletic (care soliciting), forelimb raising, licking, and investigation-initiated rear-limb raising.¹²² Social maturity is reached much later, usually at 12 to 24 months of age, approximately twice the age of sexual maturity. It may occasionally be as late as 36 months in very large breeds.²¹⁸

Figure 4-3 The facial-lingual approach for canine greeting.

Figure 4-4 The inguinal approach for canine greeting.

Figure 4-5 The anogenital approach for canine greeting.

Responses of a dog to being petted indicate the extent to which the dog is able to include humans as a member of its pack. It would correspond with mutual grooming between dogs. Simple tactile contact can dramatically lower the dog’s heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, aortic blood flow, and coronary artery blood flow.¹⁸⁸ Responses can also vary somewhat depending on the sex of the dog and the person involved. Female dogs show little reluctance to approach unfamiliar people regardless of gender. Male dogs are much less likely to approach unfamiliar men.¹⁸⁷ Most dogs solicit petting from their owner but few really are relaxed when an owner tries to hug them.

Social Cognition

Social cognition is the derivation of social information from the observation between group members.²⁷⁴ In many ways it puts observational learning in the social context. Although social cognition has been extensively studied in primates, only recently has it been investigated in dogs. An observer dog will interact first and/or more rapidly with the winner of a play bout than with the loser.²⁷⁴ If the social context was a contest over a resource instead of a play bout, the observer dog is less likely to seek interaction with either winner or loser.²⁷⁴ Dogs have been shown also to be able to learn from human demonstrations, not just that from other dogs,^254,255 but verbal attention-getting may be an important aspect of that success.²⁵⁶

Moving to a New Home

There is no question that moving to a new home, while exciting, is stressful to people. All the disruptions in schedules and human interactions make it stressful for dogs too. Almost 50% of dogs will show signs of distress, including 23% that show excessive vocalization, 15% will have changes in urination or defecation patterns, and 13% will overgroom.²⁹⁵ About 20% of dogs may escape from the new home,²⁹⁵ turning the move into a tragedy.

A few precautions can minimize the dog’s stress. Owners should try to keep the pet’s schedule as close to normal as possible. That includes social interactions as well as meals. Exercise helps reduce stress and can be helpful to both the owner and the animal. Getting the dog gradually used to being in a crate or exercise pen long before the move will mean it has a familiar place to be after the move. In addition the owner can put in a clothing item, like a dirty tee shirt, that has a lot of owner odor on it, as an olfactory reassurance. The pheromone diffusers may also be helpful.

Pets that move or travel should be microchipped, and that microchip needs to be registered with the parent company nationally. Contact information should be changed right away and should include the phone number of a friend or relative in a different geographic location, in case of a significant disaster like a hurricane.

Rehoming of a Dog

Unfortunately in the United States, it is common for a dog to go to a new home after it has grown up. It could be a dog adopted from a shelter, one that was returned to a breeder because of unacceptable conformation, or one given to another family for personal reasons. It is obvious that the dog shows the distress of abandonment and adjustment for a few weeks or longer. The dog is certainly capable of building a quality relationship with the new owner, but the abandonment does affect the dog.^258,296 They play less with people, are more attentive to people, and tend to be more restless when separated from their owners.²⁵⁸

Working Dogs

Dogs have been used by humans for many tasks. In fact, many of the modern breeds resulted from selective breeding for a specific task. Retrievers are still used to bring in downed birds and Border Collies still work sheep. Some dogs guard businesses and property.³ Dogs also are used for tasks that are newer, like catching criminals, finding lost or trapped people, guiding the blind, alerting a deaf owner to certain noise-related events, and assisting severely handicapped people. A number of scientific studies are beginning to evaluate the success of the various uses of dogs and look for ways to make them even more effective.

New Babies and Small Children

Dogs and babies are often part of the same household and it is important that they get along together. The most extreme case of positive interaction between the two was reported by witnesses of the event in Kenya. A young mother had abandoned her newborn and it was retrieved by a dog and carried to be with her puppies.³⁴¹ In the United States, the baby-dog interaction is more likely to be negative without special considerations.

Bringing a new baby into a home that previously did not have children can cause a lot of tensions for a dog. This single event results in major changes to the dog’s routine and social interactions. There are lots of visitors in and out, fewer interactions with the owner, less predictable interactions, loud crying noises, and strange smells. To the dog it might be as if an alien invaded its space. Owners, however, may not recognize the disruptions that occur for the dog because they are so distracted with the new family member. The dog’s resulting behaviors, like urine marking and attention seeking, are inappropriately handled.³² The dog may be punished and is often banned from interactions with the owners when the baby is present. If the dog is not socialized to infants, it may even show threatening behaviors in the presence of the infant. Severe discipline may suppress a dog’s aggression toward a child when the adult is present, but it is often not inhibited when the adult is gone.³²² There are better ways to introduce dogs to babies.

The best time to begin minimizing the impact of the newest family member is several months before the arrival. Obedience training gives owners better verbal control and a higher comfort level in their ability to handle situations when baby and dog interact.^161,327 The dog should gradually be put on a schedule of feeding, exercise, and reduced attention that can be continued after the baby comes.^32,161 Owners can also incorporate fun interactions with the dog in the baby’s room, rather than making the room off-limits.³² The sounds and smells of new babies can be introduced by audiotape recordings and used items of baby clothing borrowed from friends before the newest member arrives.^32,161

When the family comes home from the hospital, the adults should greet the dog as they usually do, alternating who holds the baby as necessary. This will allow the mother to interact with the dog, who is excited enough simply by her return.^161,327 The dog will be curious about the baby, so after the dog has settled down, it should be introduced to the new family member. This is more so it can smell the baby rather than see it up close, so a little distance is desirable. Protection of the infant is important, of course, so using a leash is appropriate and a muzzle is appropriate if there is any concern.^161,327 This should not be confused with jealousy, nor should it be punished.^161,327 At this time, there are also likely to be many visitors. Because both the dog and family members are already stressed by all the recent changes, caution needs to be used to protect guests.

To help the dog adjust to the newest family member, positive owner interactions with the dog should occur primarily when the baby is also present, so that the dog comes to associate good things with the presence of the new infant.^{32,138,161,323,327} The dog can even be asked to “sit,” “down,” or do a trick, with the baby seeming to give the food reward with “help” from the parent. All too often owners want to ban the dog from the baby’s room and use punishment when the dog seeks attention, thus setting up an ever-increasing series of negative interactions.

The most important consideration with any small child and dog is to never allow the two together unsupervised. Not every dog will accept a new baby, even with the best preparation. Certain situations dictate caution. A greater likelihood for problems exists if the dog has had little or no contact with babies,¹⁶¹ has already shown aggression to other babies, is aggressive to adults, or has a history of predatory aggression toward small animals.³²⁶ Owners should be particularly alert to the possibility of problems when the baby cries, crawls, and begins to walk. Protective barriers are a must.⁴⁰ The cries of a newborn baby can be very upsetting to certain dogs. They may hide in some distant corner of the house, or they may respond by pacing back and forth between the baby and owner.³² A parent may incorrectly interpret this pacing as protective behavior when in reality the behavior is the dog’s comfort-seeking attempt. If the source of the irritating noise does not stop, a stressed dog may eventually attack.

The other two times of special concern are when the baby begins to crawl and later when it begins to walk. At these times, the dog finds it more difficult to escape the approaching child and may bite as a warning.³² Unfortunately, young children can hurt dogs by pulling tails, grabbing a handful of hair, or losing their balance and falling on the dog. Dogs usually try to withdraw from these types of situations if possible,²⁰⁵ but when that is not possible, they may react defensively.

Dogs also want quiet time away from the two-legged pest. The dog goes off by itself but the child seeks it out. It may try to move away again or it may begin to show other signs. When trying to communicate this “leave-me-alone” message, the dog can become irritable, but the child is not able to understand the nonverbal message. These situations can be particularly dangerous for small children because they are at face level with a dog. In cases where the dog is unable to get peace from a busy child, parents should remove the child or dog from the vicinity or strictly shield the child from interactions with the dog.³²

Veterinarians

Veterinary clinics can be stressful places for dogs because no matter how many times the dog comes, there is almost always a painful or stressful experience. In some cases, it is the strange environment that causes stress. In others, it is many unfamiliar people or animals.³³⁶ The dog may get a thermometer placed in its anus, be put on a slippery table, stuck with needles, have tender ears swabbed, and get pills poked down its throat—all for a pat on the head or a so-so food treat. Sixty percent of dogs coming into a veterinary clinic for routine examinations show submissive apprehension.³⁰³ Another 18% are fear-biters or potential fear-biters, and 5% show active defensive tendencies.³⁰³ All types of breeds have shown aggression to veterinarians, and not necessarily in proportion to their distribution in the population.¹⁹⁰ Only 17% are relaxed and easy to approach.³⁰³

Problems at the veterinary clinic can be caused in part by negative experiences during the socialization period, particularly if they happened as stable learning was beginning. It is during this time that puppies are getting vaccinations and fecal exams frequently. There are several ways to help minimize the likelihood of the visit being negative. By spending the first few minutes interacting with the puppy or dog in a positive way, the veterinarian allows the animal to get comfortable with the new person and environment. Small pieces of a highly palatable food treat help create a positive first impression. If this happens routinely, many dogs will eventually walk right up to the veterinarian and put their nose in the treat pocket. Shy dogs take a little more effort. In addition to the treats and soft voice tones, it may be necessary to avoid direct eye contact. When it is time to actually do a procedure, such as getting the weight, obtaining a fecal sample, or vaccinating, distracting the puppy or dog with spreadable cheese can make the procedures go unnoticed (Fig. 4-6). Then, time spent by the veterinarian to end each visit on an upbeat interaction is probably time well spent in regard to future visits.

Figure 4-6 Cheese or other treats that can be licked can be used as a distracter during puppy vaccinations.

Dog Heroes

Of special note in human-canine interactions are the numerous times dogs have been helpful, even lifesaving, to humans. The best of the best may even be honored with special awards. Dog heroes have saved people from drowning and from burning buildings. They have prevented harm from cars, blizzards, burglars, other dogs, and dangerous animals. They have sheltered the lost and injured and sought help for injured humans and other dogs. These heartwarming stories occur because special dogs use their social behavior to the fullest degree. In almost all cases, the dog is reacting to a member of its extended pack in trouble or is showing territorial protection.^32,107 Except for toy breeds, which retain puppy characteristics, and terriers, which tend toward independent behaviors, most dogs will instinctively protect their owners if they respect the owner as a higher ranking pack member.^32,63 Terriers tend to be territorially protective instead.

Occasionally, owners try to set up situations to see if their dog will come to the rescue. This generally is not recommended because innocent people can be hurt in the process, or owners can be disappointed when they do not see the desired response. Rarely is it possible to set up a lifelike scenario that includes the true reactions of fear. Owners tend to confuse territorial protection with owner protection, so a dog that may lick a burglar could still be very protective if the owner were threatened.

Human-Dog Play

Social play between puppies, and to a lesser extent between adult dogs, provides social interaction, an opportunity to learn new skills, and physical toning. Play with humans is characteristically and motivationally different than play with another dog.²⁷⁵ A dog that plays with other dogs will still play as much with its owner as does a dog without a canine play partner. This indicates the types of play are motivationally different. Dogs are also capable of responding to play signals from humans, especially the play bows and lunges.²⁷⁶ Dogs are also less likely to possess toys than to present a toy when playing with the owner.²⁷⁵ In interdog play, they tend to keep the toy for themselves.