Birds

Chapter 5 Birds

Michelle G. Hawkins, Heather W. Barron, Brian L. Speer, Christal Pollock, James W. Carpenter

TABLE 5-1 Antimicrobial Agents Used in Birds.^a

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Amikacin	—	Least nephrotoxic of the aminoglycosides;¹⁶⁵ maintain hydration during use⁵
	7 mg/kg IV q24h³⁴⁴	Emus/PD; mean serum levels declined below a target trough of 4 μg/mL at 24 hr
	7.6 mg/kg IM q8h³⁸³	Ostriches/PD; causes myositis; painful injection
	10 mg/kg IM q12h⁵⁷⁷	Cranes
	10 mg/kg SC, IM q8h × 14 days⁴²⁶	Ring-necked pheasants/PD; renal toxicosis appeared at 11 days; uric acid levels abnormal up to 7 days after cessation
	10-15 mg/kg IM q24h³⁶³	Raptors
	10-15 mg/kg IM q12h⁴⁸¹	Amazon parrots, cockatiels, cockatoos/PD
	10-15 mg/kg IM, IV q8-12h⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species, including psittacines
	10-20 mg/kg IM, IV q8-12h³⁰³	African grey parrots/PD
	15 mg/kg IM q12h⁷²⁴	Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD
	15 mg/kg IV q8h⁷²⁴	Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD
	15-20 mg/kg/day divided q8-24h⁷³	Red-tailed hawks/PD; use low end of dose range for smaller hawks
	15-20 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q8-12h²⁰⁰	Passerines, pigeons/5 days maximum⁶⁹³
	15-20 mg/kg IM q8-12h⁶⁴³	Cockatiels/PD
	15-30 mg/kg IM q12-24h²⁰⁰^,⁸²⁴	Most species, including passerines/use in combination with other agents for Mycobacterium; see Table 5-45
	20 mg/kg IM q12h¹	Ostriches (chicks)/administer concurrent to piperacillin (100 mg/kg q12h)
	20 mg/kg IM q8h²¹⁴	Chickens/PD
	528 mg/L drinking water⁸¹⁰	Ratites/egg dip
	3 g/40 packet bone cement⁸¹⁴	PMMA bead formation (1:14 ratio); same dose for all aminoglycoside beads
Amoxicillin/clavulanate (Clavamox, Pfizer)	—	β-lactamase inhibitor; use with allopurinol is contraindicated⁵
Amoxicillin/clavulanate (Clavamox, Pfizer)	7-14 mg/kg IM q24h¹⁰²	Ostriches
	10-15 mg/kg PO q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	60-120 mg/kg IM q8-12h²⁰¹	Collared doves/PD
	125 mg/kg PO q12h²⁵⁹^,⁶⁰⁹	Most species, including pigeons, psittacines, raptors
	125 mg/kg PO q6h¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	125 mg/kg PO q8h⁵⁸⁶	Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD
	125-250 mg/kg PO q8-12h²⁰¹	Collared doves/PD
	500 mg/L drinking water⁸⁷²	Chickens/PD
Amoxicillin sodium	50 mg/kg IM q12-24h¹⁹⁹	Pigeons/PD; gram-positive bacteria
	100 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h⁷⁰²	Bustards/PD; administer q4h IM or q8h IV to maintain blood levels >2 mg/mL
	150 mg/kg IM q8h⁶⁹⁶	Passerines, soft bills
	250 mg/kg IM q12-24h¹⁹⁵^,¹⁹⁹	Pigeons/PD; gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
Amoxicillin trihydrate	—	Broad-spectrum bactericidal penicillin antibiotic;⁵ minimal activity for common gram-negative infections of birds;⁷⁰² because amoxicillin has a relatively low availability after oral administration, higher doses are needed in birds to achieve the same peak levels as in mammals²⁰⁴
	15-22 mg/kg PO q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	20 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹⁹⁷	Pigeons/PD; mean half-life 66 min
	30 mg/kg IM q12h × 5 days¹⁰²	Pigeons
	40-80 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days¹⁰²	Pigeons
	55-110 mg/kg PO q12h³²⁰	Pigeons
	100 mg/kg PO q12-24h²⁰⁵	Pigeons/PD
	100 mg/kg PO q8h⁵⁰	Most species, including raptors
	100-150 mg/kg PO q12h¹⁴⁹	Raptors
	100-200 mg/kg PO, IM q4-8h²⁰⁵	Pigeons
	150 mg/kg SC, IM q24h × 5 days (administer q48h with long-acting preparation)⁷⁰²	Pigeons
	150 mg/kg PO, IV⁷⁵⁰	Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis
	150-175 mg/kg PO q12h¹⁴⁷^,⁴⁰⁹	Passerines (towhees), psittacines
	150-175 mg/kg PO q4-8h⁶⁹⁶^,⁸¹²	Pigeons, psittacines
	65 mg/L drinking water⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	200-400 mg/L drinking water³¹²	Canaries/aviary use
	330 mg/L drinking water,⁶³ provide on alternate days × 3 treatments¹¹⁹	Waterfowl
	500-800 mg/L drinking water³²⁰	Pigeons
	1500 mg/L drinking water × 5 days⁷⁵⁰	Pigeons/S. bovis
	1500-4500 mg/L drinking water¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	300-500 mg/kg soft feed³¹²	Canaries/aviary use
	600 mg/kg soft feed¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
Ampicillin sodium	50 mg/kg IM q6-8h²¹⁸	Amazon parrots/PD; localized infections
	100 mg/kg IM q4h²¹⁸	Amazon parrots/PD
	150 mg/kg q12-24h IM¹⁹⁵^,¹⁹⁹	Pigeons/PD
	150 mg/kg IM q12-24h¹⁹⁸	Passerines, soft bills
	150-200 mg/kg PO q8-12h²¹⁸	Amazon parrots/PD; therapeutic levels not achieved in blue-naped Amazons at this dosage
	174 mg/kg PO q24h¹⁸¹	Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis
	528 mg/L drinking water¹⁸¹	Pigeons/PD; S. bovis
Ampicillin trihydrate	—	Broad-spectrum bactericidal penicillin antibiotic; minimal activity for common gram-negative infections of birds; poor gastrointestinal absorption; may be useful for treating sensitive gastrointestinal infections⁷⁰²
	4-7 mg/kg SC, IM q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites (excluding emus)
	11-15 mg/kg PO q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	15 mg/kg IM q12h¹⁰⁰	Raptors/PD
	15-20 mg/kg SC, IM q12h¹⁰⁰^,³⁸⁴^,⁵¹¹	Emus, cranes (PD)
	25 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹⁹⁵^,¹⁹⁹	Pigeons/PD
	55-110 mg/kg IM q8-12h³²¹	Poultry
	100 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹⁹⁵^,¹⁹⁹	Pigeon/PD
	100 mg/kg IM q12h⁵⁷⁷	Cranes
	100 mg/kg IM q4h¹³⁴^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species, including psittacines
	100-200 mg/kg PO q6-8h⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Psittacines
	155 mg/kg IM q12-24h²⁰⁵	Pigeons/PD; amoxicillin preferred over ampicillin for IM use in pigeons
	170 mg/L drinking water¹⁰²	Game birds
	1000 mg/L drinking water⁶⁷¹	Galliformes/flock use
	1000-2000 mg/L drinking water³¹²	Canaries/aviary use
	2000-3000 mg/kg soft feed³¹²	Canaries/aviary use
Apramycin (Apralan, Elanco)	—	Aminoglycoside; nephrotoxic; therapeutic levels not achieved in Japanese quail at 50 mg/kg IV;⁴⁴⁴ not available in the United States
	250-500 mg/L drinking water¹⁰²	Gamebirds
	500 mg powder/L drinking water⁶⁴^,⁷⁸⁷	Psittacines, chickens/Pseudomonas
Arsanilic acid (sodium arsanilate or P-amino-benzenearsonic acid) (Pro-Gen, Vétoquinol)	100 mg/kg feed⁷⁸⁷	Poultry/do not use in ducks and geese
Azithromycin (Zithromax, Pfizer)	—	Newer-generation macrolide indicated for intracellular infections including Toxoplasma, Plasmodium, Chlamydophila, and Cryptosporidium
	10-20 mg/kg PO q48h × 5 treatments¹¹⁷	Blue and gold macaws/PD; nonintracellular infections
	40 mg/kg PO q24h × 30 days¹¹⁷	Blue and gold macaws/PD; intracellular infections (i.e., Chlamydophila)
	40 mg/kg PO q48h × 21 days³⁰⁵	Cockatiels/PD; Chlamydophila
	43-45 mg/kg PO q24h²⁰⁰^,⁶⁹⁵	Most species including psittacines, passerines/intracellular infections including Mycobacterium; used with ethambutol and rifabutin (see Table 5-45)
	50-80 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days on, off 4 days, repeat up to 3 wk⁶⁷²	Most species/Mycoplasma; do not use if hepatic or renal disease; can mix with lactulose (stable refrigerated for 3-4 wk)
Bacitracin methylene disalicylate (Solutracin 200, A.L. Laboratories; BMD Soluble, Alpharma)	50-400 mg/L drinking water³⁸⁴^,⁸¹⁰	Ratites/Clostridium perfringens; prepare daily
	220 mg/L¹¹⁹	Quail/Clostridium perfringens
	55-220 mg/kg feed⁵¹¹	Quail
	100-500 mg/kg feed¹⁰²	Ostriches <3 mo of age
Carbenicillin (Geocillin, Roerig; Pyopen, SmithKline Beechum)	—	Extended-spectrum penicillin effective against gram-negative bacteria, especially Pseudomonas, Proteus⁷⁰²
	11-15 mg/kg IV q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	100 mg/kg PO q12h⁵¹⁸	Most species
	100 mg/kg IM q8h⁴⁷	Most species
	100 mg/kg IT q24h¹³⁴	Most species/Pseudomonas respiratory infections
	100-200 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h¹¹³^,²⁰⁰^,³²³^,⁶⁷²^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species, including psittacines, passerines, soft bills, pigeons, cranes, raptors
	250 mg/kg IM q12h⁶⁵³	Raptors
	1058 mg/L drinking water⁵¹⁸	Most species
Cefadroxil	—	First-generation cephalosporin
	20 mg/kg PO q12h⁸⁴¹	Ratites
	100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days³²⁰^,⁶⁹²	Most psittacines, pigeons/14-21 day therapy may be indicated for severe or deep pyodermas
Cefazolin	—	First-generation cephalosporin
	22-110 mg/kg IM q8-12h³²¹	Poultry
	25-30 mg/kg IM, IV q8h¹¹¹	Cranes
	25-50 mg/kg IM, IV q12h⁶⁷²	Most species
	50-75 mg/kg IM q12h⁶⁹²	Most species
	50-100 mg/kg PO, IM q12h⁶²²	Raptors
Cefotaxime (Claforan, Hoechst-Roussel)	—	Third-generation cephalosporin with broad-spectrum activity for many gram-positive and gram-negative pathogens;⁷⁰² penetrates cerebrospinal fluid⁵
	25 mg/kg IM q8h⁸¹³	Ratites/young birds
	50-100 mg/kg IM q8-12h⁵⁷⁷	Cranes
	75-100 mg/kg IM q12h³⁶³	Raptors
	75-100 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h⁵⁰^,²⁰⁰^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species, including soft bills, psittacines, passerines
	100 mg/kg IM q8-12h³²⁰	Pigeons
Cefovecin (Convenia, Pfizer)	10 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q1h⁷¹⁸^,⁸⁰⁴	Pigeons, chickens/PD; not recommended for use in birds due to short ½ life; cannot be used q14d as in dogs and cats
Cefoxitin	—	Second-generation cephalosporin with a wide range of activity against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
	50-75 mg/kg IM, IV q6-8h²⁰⁰^,⁸¹³	Most species, including soft bills
	50-100 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h⁶⁷²^,⁸¹²	Psittacines
Cefquinome	5 mg/kg IM q24h⁸⁶⁵	Ducks/broad-spectrum cephalosporin; no effect PO
Ceftazidime	—	Broad-spectrum third-generation cephalosporin; penetrates central nervous system⁵
	50-100 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h²⁴⁴^,⁶⁹⁶	Most species
Ceftiofur (Naxcel, Pfizer)	—	Broad-spectrum third-generation cephalosporin with activity against Pasteurella, E. coli, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Salmonella⁵
	0.16 mg/chick SC q24h⁷⁹⁶	Chickens (chicks)/PD; treatment of early mortality associated with E. coli
	0.17-0.5 mg/poult SC q24h⁷⁹⁶	Turkeys
	2-4 mg/kg SC q24h¹²⁸	Ducks
	2.8-5.8 mg/kg SC q24h⁷⁹⁶	Turkeys (poults)/PD; treatment of early mortality associated with E. coli
	10 mg/kg IM q8-12h⁷⁹⁶	Orange-winged Amazon parrots/PD
	10 mg/kg IM q4h⁷⁹⁶	Cockatiels/PD; higher doses may be required for resistant infections
	10 mg/kg IM q72h^b	Guineafowl/PD
	10-20 mg/kg IM q12h¹^,⁸⁴¹	Ratites
	50 mg/kg IM q12h¹	Ostrich chicks
	50-100 mg/kg q4-8h²⁰⁰^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species, including psittacines and passerines
Ceftriaxone	—	Third-generation cephalosporin; effective against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria including some activity against Pseudomonas⁷⁰²
	75-100 mg/kg IM q4-8h²³⁹^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species
	100 mg/kg IM q4h⁴⁰⁵	Chickens/PD
Cephalexin	—	First-generation cephalosporin; active against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including E. coli and Proteus, but not Pseudomonas; useful for Staphylococcus dermatitis⁵
	15-22 mg/kg PO q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites (excluding emus)
	35-50 mg/kg PO, IM q6-8h⁹⁹^,¹⁰⁶^,³⁶³^,⁵⁷⁷	Pigeons, emus, cranes, raptors, psittacines >500 g/dose psittacines q6h
	35-50 mg/kg IM q2-3h⁹⁹^,¹⁴⁷	Quail, ducks (PD), psittacines <500 g
	40-100 mg/kg PO, IM q6-8h⁴⁷^,⁶³^,²⁰⁰^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species, including raptors, psittacines, passerines
	50 mg/kg PO q6h × 3-5 days¹⁰²^,⁵³⁴	Raptors, pigeons
	55-110 mg/kg PO q12h³²¹	Poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus
	100 mg/kg PO q8-12h³²⁰	Pigeons/14-21 day therapy may be indicated for severe or deep pyodermas
	100 mg/kg PO q4-6h⁹⁹	Pigeons, emus, cranes/PD
Cephalothin	—	First-generation cephalosporin
	30-40 mg/kg IM, IV q6h⁸¹⁰	Ratites (excluding emus)
	100 mg/kg IM q8-12h³⁶³	Raptors
	100 mg/kg IM, IV q6-8h¹³⁴^,⁸¹⁰	Most species, including psittacines, ratites
	100 mg/kg IM q6h⁹⁹	Pigeons, emus, cranes/PD
	100 mg/kg IM, IV q2-6h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	100 mg/kg IM q2-3h⁹⁹	Quail, ducks/PD
Cephradine	—	First-generation cephalosporin
	35-50 mg/kg PO q4-6h⁶⁷¹	Most species/14-21 day therapy may be indicated for severe or deep pyodermas
	100 mg/kg PO q4-6h⁶⁷¹	Pigeons, emus, cranes
Chloramphenicol palmitate (oral suspension)	—	Not for use in food animals;³³² wear gloves; bone marrow suppression (irreversible aplastic anemia in humans); potential nephrotoxicity; bacteriostatic activity;⁶¹⁴ mainly excreted after biotransformation; because large differences in pharmacokinetics exist between birds and mammals, and even between avian species, extrapolation between species is ill-advised²⁰⁴
	25 mg/kg PO q8h × 5 days¹⁰²	Pigeons
	30-50 mg/kg PO q6-8h⁷⁰²^,⁸¹¹^,⁸¹²	Psittacines, including budgerigars
	35-50 mg/kg PO q8h × 3 days⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	50 mg/kg PO q6-12h¹⁶^,³⁶³^,⁶⁷³	Raptors, galliformes (turkeys)
	50-100 mg/kg PO q6-12h⁴⁵^,²⁰⁰	Most species, including passerines
	250 mg/kg PO q6h³²⁰	Pigeons
	100-200 mg/L drinking water⁶⁷²	Canaries
Chloramphenicol succinate	22 mg/kg IM, IV q3h¹⁸²	Ducks (PD), raptors
Chloramphenicol succinate	30 mg/kg IM q8h × 3-5 days²⁵⁹	Raptors
	35-50 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q8h × 3 days⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	50 mg/kg IM q6h¹²⁹	Macaws, conures (PD)
	50 mg/kg IM q8-12h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	50 mg/kg IM q24h¹²⁹	Peafowl, eagles (PD)
	50 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h¹²⁹^,²⁰⁰^,⁷⁰²	Most species, including budgerigars, passerines, pigeons, raptors, chickens, turkeys, geese (PD),¹²⁹ ducks
	50-80 mg/kg IM q12-24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	60-100 mg/kg IM q8h³²³	Pigeons
	79 mg/kg IM q12h¹²⁹	Turkeys/PD
	100 mg/kg SC q8h⁵⁷⁷	Cranes
	100 mg/kg IM q6h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	200 mg/kg IM q12h × 5 days³⁷²	Budgerigars/PD
Chlorhexidine	2.6-7.9 mL of 2% solution/L drinking water⁶⁷³^,⁷⁷⁹	Most species/bacterial infection; topical application may be fatal to nun and parrot finches⁶⁷²
	7.9 mL/L water⁸¹⁰	Ratites/egg disinfectant spray at 104-108°F (40-42°C)
Chlorine (Na hypochlorite)	5 mg/L drinking water⁶⁹²	Water disinfectant; 0.1 mL of 5.25% bleach/L approximates this concentration
Chlortetracycline (Aureomycin Soluble Powder, Cyanamid)	—	Broad-spectrum activity against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria; flock treatment of Chlamydophila, although doxycycline is preferred;⁷⁰² outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic²⁷⁰
	6-10 mg/kg IM q24h³⁴¹	Raptors
	15-20 mg/kg PO q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	40-50 mg/kg PO q8h (w/grit) or q12h (w/o grit)	Pigeons/PD
	100 mg/kg PO q6h¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	250 mg/kg PO q24h³⁴¹	Raptors
	40-120 mg/L drinking water¹⁰²	Galliformes (game birds)
	130-400 mg/L drinking water³²⁰^,⁷⁰²^,⁸⁰⁸	Pigeons
	500 mg/L drinking water or nectar¹³³^,¹³⁴	Most species/prepare fresh q8-12h
	1000-1500 mg/L drinking water¹⁴⁷^,¹⁹⁷	Canaries, psittacines/prophylaxis against Chlamydophila
	5000 mg/L drinking water × 45 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines/Chlamydophila
	100 mg/kg feed⁸⁰⁸	Pigeons/Salmonella
	200-600 mg/kg feed¹⁰²	Galliformes
	300-400 mg/kg feed¹¹⁹	Waterfowl/colibacillosis, Chlamydophila, Salmonella
	500 mg/kg feed¹⁹⁹	Budgerigars/Chlamydophila
	1000 mg/kg feed⁶³	Waterfowl
	1000-2000 mg/kg soft mixed feed × 45 days⁶⁴^,¹⁹⁷^,¹⁹⁸	Most psittacines, canaries
	2500 mg/kg feed⁸⁷³ and 2500 mg/L drinking water	Chickens, turkeys/PD; simultaneous medication of feed and water required to reach therapeutic level
	5000 mg/kg soft feed × 45 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines/Chlamydophila
	0.5% pellets × 30-45 days⁴⁷^,¹³³^,¹³⁴^,¹⁹⁶	Small psittacines/reduce calcium content of diet to 0.7%
	1% pellets × 30-45 days¹⁹⁶^,²⁴²^,²⁵²	Large psittacines/reduce calcium content of diet to 0.7%
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro, Bayer)	—	Broad-spectrum quinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds in the United States²⁵⁸
	2 mg/kg IV⁵⁵²	Chicks/no toxic effects observed
	3-6 mg/kg PO q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	5 mg/kg/day PO × 5 days²⁸²	Chickens/PD
	5-20 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-7 days⁶⁹³	Pigeons
	10 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days²	Ostrich chicks
	10-20 mg/kg PO q12h²¹⁵^,³⁶³	Raptors, chickens
	15-20 mg/kg PO, IM q12h⁴⁷^,²⁰⁰^,⁸¹¹^,⁸¹²	Most species, including psittacines, passerines
	20-40 mg/kg PO, IV q12h⁵¹¹^,⁶⁷²	Most species, including psittacines, canaries, raptors
	50 mg/kg PO q12h³⁷⁰	Raptors/PD
	80 mg/kg PO q24h⁸²⁴	Most species/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
	250 mg/L drinking water × 5-10 days⁶⁹³	Pigeons
Clarithromycin (Biaxin, Abbott)	—	Broad-spectrum new generation macrolide; frequently used in combination with other drugs for mycobacteriosis (see Table 5-45)
	10 mg/kg PO q24h⁵⁵⁹	Penguins
	60 mg/kg q24h⁴⁵²	Psittacines
	85 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁹⁵	Most species/Mycobacterium; allometrically scaled
Clindamycin	—	Lincosamide; indicated for bone, joint, and tendon sheath infections; may be used for up to 12 wk without ill effects;⁷⁰² monitor kidney and liver with long-term use as well as for yeast overgrowth
	5.5 mg/kg PO q8h⁵³⁴	Ostriches
	12.5 mg/kg PO q12h³¹³	Great horned owls/skin grafts; given in combination with enrofloxacin
	25 mg/kg PO q8h²⁴²	Psittacines, raptors
	50 mg/kg PO q8-12h²⁴⁴	Most species/7-10 day course recommended for raptors with osteomyelitis⁶³
	100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days²⁰⁰^,²⁴²^,³⁶³^,⁶⁷³^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Most species, including psittacines, passerines, raptors, pigeons, quail/Clostridium
	100 mg/kg PO q12h⁶⁰⁹ × 7 days	Psittacines
	150 mg/kg PO q24h³⁰²	Pigeons, raptors/osteomyelitis
	200 mg/L drinking water¹⁵⁷	Pigeons
Clofazimine (Lamprene, Novartis)	1-5 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-12 mo⁶³^,⁶⁴^,⁷⁰²	Psittacines, raptors/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
	6 mg/kg PO q12h⁶⁹⁵^,⁸²⁴	Most species/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
	6-12 mg/kg PO q24h²⁰⁰^,⁴⁵²	Passerines/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
Cloxacillin	—	Penicillin effective against many gram-positive organisms; recommended in the treatment of pododermatitis⁷⁰²
	100-200 mg/kg IM q24h⁵³⁴	Most species
	250 mg/kg PO q24h⁵⁰⁰	Most species
	250 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-10 days⁶³	Raptors
Cycloserine (Seromycin, Lilly)	5 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 3-12 mo⁶³^,⁷⁰²	Raptors/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
Danofloxacin mesylate (A180, Pfizer)	—	Fluoroquinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds in the United States²⁵⁸
	5 mg/kg PO, IM, IV²¹⁵^,⁵²¹^,⁷⁸⁷	Hyacinth macaws, chickens (PD)/higher therapeutic efficacy of water medication for enrofloxacin compared to danofloxacin can be expected when given at 5 mg/kg⁴²²
	50 mg/L in drinking water × 3 days⁵²⁵^,⁶⁷²^,⁷⁸⁸	Chicken chicks/Mycoplasma
Doxycycline (Vibramycin, Pfizer)	—	Drug of choice for Chlamydophila, Mycoplasma; products or foods containing Al, Ca, Mg, and Fe reduce or alter absorption although doxycycline has a relatively low affinity for calcium binding;²⁰⁶ outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic;²⁷⁰ 12.5-25 mg/kg PO q12-24h resulted in elevations in AST and serum bile acids as well as hepatocellular damage in lorikeets⁸⁷⁵
	2-3.5 mg/kg PO q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	7.5-8 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹⁹⁵^,⁶⁷²	Passerines, nectar feeders, pigeons/PD; administer without grit¹⁹⁷
	8-25 mg/kg PO q12h¹¹⁹	Waterfowl
	10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days¹⁰²	Pigeons
	25 mg/kg (w/grit) PO q12h⁸⁷⁸	Pigeons/PD
	25 mg/kg PO q12h³⁹⁷	Psittacines, raptors/some gram-negative bacterial infections and possibly Leucocytozoon
	25-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹⁹⁸^,²⁴²^,³⁶³^,⁸¹¹^,⁸¹²	Most species, including parrots (African grey parrots, Amazon parrots, cockatoos, macaws) and pigeons/may cause regurgitation; use low end of dose range for macaws and cockatoos
	35 mg/kg PO q24h × 21 days³⁰⁵	Cockatiels/PD; Chlamydophila
	40 mg/kg PO q24h¹⁸¹	Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis
	50 mg/kg PO q12h⁶³	Waterfowl
	100 mg/L drinking water²²¹	Chickens/PD
	130 mg/L drinking water¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	200 mg/L drinking water²²²	Pigeons
	250 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁷	Canaries
	265-525 mg/L drinking water³²¹	Poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus; can use in combination with tylosin
	280 mg/L drinking water⁶²⁶	Cockatiels/see Table 5-41 for recipe
	400 mg/L drinking water²²⁵	Cockatiels/PD; spiral bacteria
	500 mg/L drinking water¹⁴⁷^,¹⁸¹	Psittacines, pigeons/PD; S. bovis
	500 mg/L drinking water⁵⁹¹	Fruit doves/PD; erratic drug concentrations (while most birds reached or exceeded therapeutic drug levels, some birds did not)
	800 mg/L drinking water (mix the contents of 16 x 100 mg capsules with 2 L water; make fresh daily)²⁴⁹	African grey parrots, Goffin’s cockatoos/PD; protect solution from exposure to light
	250-300 mg/kg seed⁶³^,²⁴¹	Waterfowl, budgerigars (PD)
	500 mg/kg wet weight seeds⁶²⁶	Cockatiels/PD; see Table 5-41 for recipe
	1000 mg/kg feed¹⁹⁷^,¹⁹⁸^,⁶³⁰	Large psittacines on dehulled seed (PD), macaws on corn (PD), canaries, large psittacines on soft feed (10 mg/mL syrup mixed into 29% kidney beans, 29% canned corn, 29% cooked rice, 13% dry oatmeal cereal)
Doxycycline (Vibravenös, Pfizer)	—	Not available in the United States without written permission by Food and Drug Administration
	25-50 mg/kg IM q5-7d × 5-7 treatments⁶⁹⁶^,⁸¹¹	Psittacines
	60-100 mg/kg SC, IM q5-7d¹⁹⁷	Psittacines, pigeons/PD
	75 mg/kg IM q7d × 4-6 wk⁵⁰^,⁶³	Macaws, waterfowl
	75-100 mg/kg IM q5-7d × 4-6 wk⁵⁰^,⁶⁹⁶^,⁸¹¹	Psittacines, including macaws, budgerigars
	100 mg/kg SC, IM q5-7d × 7 doses³⁰⁰	Houbara bustards/PD; Chlamydophila
Doxycycline (Pharmacist-compounded micronized doxycycline hyclate)	75-100 mg/kg IM q7d⁶⁹⁶	Cockatoos/anecdotal reports of sudden death with compounded product; inadequate drug levels achieved in cockatiels at 100 mg/kg IM q10d;⁶²⁶ adequate drug levels achieved with 100 mg/kg given IM in cockatoos, Amazon parrots and SC in African grey parrots, but severe soft tissue reactions seen²⁴⁶
Doxycycline hyclate (Vibramycin injection, Pfizer)	—	Cardiovascular collapse associated with the propylene glycol carrier can occur after rapid IV injection²⁷⁰
	25-50 mg/kg slow bolus IV q24h × 3 days⁶⁹⁶	Psittacines
	75-100 mg/kg SC, IM q5-7d¹⁹⁵	Pigeons/PD
Doxycycline (Doxirobe gel, Pharmacia)	Topical⁷⁶¹	Most species/apply to beak or pododermatitis lesions; use in conjuction with debridement; antibiotic is released for 28 days
Enrofloxacin (Baytril, Bayer)	—	Broad-spectrum quinolone;²⁵⁸ compounds containing Ca, Al, Fe, Mg, Zn interfere with absorption
		Administration may be associated with emesis;⁷⁰² given PO, the IM formulation produces therapeutic plasma concentration;³⁶³ IM formulation is extremely alkaline (painful) and should not be given repeatedly; best to avoid IV use in birds; fluoroquinolones may be used in PMMA beads with success²¹¹
		Joint deformities reported in squab chondrocytes with 200-800 mg/L drinking water;⁴³² however enrofloxacin has been commonly used at the recommended dosages without reports of adverse effects;²⁵⁰^,⁶⁷² no detected effect on cartilage in day-old chicks⁶⁰⁶
		Administration of the total daily dose to chickens over 2-4 hr (pulse dosing) has been recommended by some⁷⁶⁵
	1.5-2.5 mg/kg PO, SC q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	2.2 mg/kg IV q12h³⁴⁵	Emus/PD
	5 mg/kg SC, IM q12h⁸¹¹	Cockatiels
	5 mg/kg PO, IM q12-24h⁸¹¹	African grey parrots
	5 mg/kg IM q12h × 2 days⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	5 mg/kg/day PO × 5 days²⁸²	Chickens/PD; accumulates in eggs
	5-10 mg/kg SC, IM q24h¹⁹⁷^,¹⁹⁹	African grey parrots
	5-10 mg/kg PO q8h	Passerines, pigeons (PD)
	5-15 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q12h³²³^,³⁶³^,⁶⁹⁶^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²	Raptors, psittacines, pigeons/drug of choice for Salmonella typhimurium
	5-20 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 5-10 days¹⁰²^,⁸¹¹	Pigeons
	10 mg/kg PO q12h¹¹³	Cockatiels
	10 mg/kg PO q12h × 4 days²⁵	Chickens/PD; high efficacy for intestinal salmonellosis
	10-15 mg/kg PO, IM q12h × 5-7 days⁷⁰²	Raptors, waterfowl including Muscovy, Pekin ducklings/Riemerella (Pasteurella)
	10-20 mg/kg PO q24h¹⁹⁷^,²⁰⁰	Passerines, psittacines, pigeons (PD)
	15 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁰⁹	Psittacines
	15 mg/kg PO q12h¹^,⁴⁷⁵	Ostrich chicks, pigeons (administration to adult birds led to therapeutic levels in crop milk)
	15 mg/kg PO, IM, IV q12h³²⁶	Raptors/PD; IV administration in owls may result in weakness, tachycardia, vasoconstriction
	15 mg/kg PO, SC q12h²⁴⁴	Most species
	15-30 mg/kg PO, IM q12h²⁴⁸	African grey parrots/PD
	20 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q12h³²³^,⁷⁰²	Pigeons/administer parenterally, followed by oral treatment
	20-30 mg/kg PO q12-24h²²²	Pigeons
	25 mg/kg PO, SC q24h²⁴⁴	Experimental
	30 mg/kg PO, IM q24h⁸¹²	Psittacines
	45 mg/kg PO q24h³²³	Pigeons
	50 mg/kg via nebulization × 4 hr (day 1, AM), then 25 mg/kg × 4 hr/day × 4 days⁸¹⁵	Muscovy, Pekin ducklings/Riemerella (Pasteurella)
	25-50 mg/L drinking water⁸⁵	Cranes (sandhill)/did not provide sufficient plasma levels
	26 mg/L drinking water¹¹⁹	Galliformes
	50 mg/L drinking water³⁴²^,⁴¹⁴	Chickens, turkeys/PD
	50-100 mg/L drinking water¹⁰²	Gamebirds
	100-200 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁷^,⁶⁹³^,⁷⁰²	Psittacines, pigeons/PD; may need up to 300 mg/L to prevent recurrence of infection in pigeons⁷⁰²
	190-750 mg/L drinking water²⁵⁰	African grey parrots/PD
	200 mg/L drinking water²⁴⁷	Psittacines/PD; maintains plasma concentrations adequate only for highly susceptible bacteria
	200 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	500 mg/L drinking water⁴⁶⁷	Psittacines
	200 mg/kg soft feed¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	250 mg/kg feed¹⁹⁷	Budgerigars/PD
	250-1000 mg/kg feed q24h¹⁹⁹^,⁸¹¹	Psittacines, passerines
	500 mg/kg feed⁴⁶⁷	Psittacines, including Patagonian conures/PD; mix into steamed corn diet
	1000 mg/kg feed⁴⁶⁷	Senegal parrots/PD; mix into steamed corn diet
	0.2 mg/mL saline, flush q24h × 10 days⁶³	Raptors/nasal flush
Erythromycin	—	Macrolide; gram-positive spectrum; some activity against Mycoplasma;⁷⁰² IM injection may cause severe muscle necrosis³³²
	5-10 mg/kg PO q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	10-20 mg/kg IM q24h¹⁹⁹	Passerines
	10-20 mg/kg PO q12h⁷⁰²	Psittacines
	50-100 mg/kg PO q8-12h¹⁹⁹	Passerines
	55-110 mg/kg PO q12h³²¹	Poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus
	60 mg/kg PO q12h³⁵⁴	Most species
	71 mg/kg PO q24h¹⁸¹	Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis
	100 mg/kg PO⁸²⁵	Pigeons/PD; low plasma levels, but higher lung and trachea levels
	125 mg/kg PO q8h³²⁰	Pigeons
	102 mg/L drinking water¹⁸⁶	Chicks/PD
	125 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	132 mg/L drinking water (10 days on, 5 days off, 10 days on)¹³⁴^,¹⁹⁸	Most species, including canaries
	250-500 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	525-800 mg/L drinking water³²⁰	Psittacines
	1000 mg/L drinking water¹⁸¹^,⁸²⁵	Pigeons/PD; Streptococcus bovis; plasma levels low; one study reported that lung and trachea levels were sub-therapeutic
	1500 mg/L drinking water⁷⁰²	Most species
	200 mg/kg soft feed¹⁹⁸	Canaries, psittacines
Ethambutol (Myambutol, Lederle)	—	Most species/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
	10 mg/kg PO q12h⁵⁰	Most species
	15-20 mg/kg PO q12h × 3-12 mo⁶³^,⁶⁴	Psittacines, raptors/Mycobacterium
	15-30 mg/kg PO q12-24h²⁰⁰	Passerines/Mycobacterium
	30 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁹⁵	Most species/Mycobacterium
Flumequine (Biocik, Amacol)	—	Quinolone; not available in the United States; may cause emesis
	30 mg/kg PO, IM q8-12h¹⁹⁵^,²⁰⁰	Passerines, pigeons (PD)
Furazolidone (NF180, Hess and Clark)	—	Nitrofuran derivative; prohibited in food-producing birds because of its carcinogenic properties; use in birds linked with cardiomyopathy; therapeutic action is confined to the gastrointestinal tract
	15-20 mg/kg PO q24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	100-200 mg/L drinking water⁶⁷²	Canaries
	200 mg/kg soft food⁶⁷²	Canaries
	220-440 mg/kg feed¹¹⁹	Waterfowl/Salmonella
	908 mg/kg feed⁸⁰⁸	Pigeons/Salmonella
Gentamicin	—	Aminoglycoside; not generally recommended; narrow margin of safety; nephrotoxic;¹⁷^,⁶⁶^,⁶⁷ bird should be well hydrated; avoid doses higher than 2.5-5 mg/kg q8-12h⁶⁷^,²⁵³
	1-2 mg/kg IM q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites (excluding emus)/use only as last resort
	2.5 mg/kg IM q8h⁶⁷	Raptors/PD
	3-10 mg/kg IM q6-12h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	5 mg/kg IM q8h⁹⁸^,¹⁶⁵^,³⁸⁴	Pheasants, emus (PD), cranes (PD)
	5 mg/kg IM q12h²⁵³	Ostriches, emus/PD; rapidly eliminated; small volume of distribution
	5-10 mg/kg IM q8-12h⁶⁴³	Cockatiels/PD
	5-10 mg/kg IM q4h⁹⁸^,⁶⁹⁹	Pigeons/PD; Salmonella
	10 mg/kg IM q6h⁹⁸^,¹⁶⁵	Quail/PD
	40 mg/kg PO q8-24h²⁰⁰	Passerines/15-25 g BW
	2-3 drops ophthalmic solution intranasal q8h⁸¹¹	Most species
Isoniazid	—	Most species/Mycobacterium; should be used in combination with other drugs (see Table 5-45); M. avium often develops resistance
	5-15 mg/kg PO q12h¹⁹⁹^,⁶⁷¹^,⁸¹¹	Most species, including passerines
	30 mg/kg PO q24h⁸²⁴	Most species
Kanamycin (Kantrim, Fort Dodge)	—	Aminoglycoside
Kanamycin (Kantrim, Fort Dodge)	10-20 mg/kg IM q12h¹⁶^,¹⁹⁹	Most species, including passerines/enteric infections
	13-65 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days¹⁶^,⁹⁶	Most species/make fresh daily
Lincomycin	—	Gram-positive/anaerobic spectrum indicated for pododermatitis, chronic dermatitis, and mycoplasmosis⁷⁰²
	0.25-0.5 mL intraarticular q24h × 7-10 days⁷⁰²	Raptors
	25-50 mg/kg PO q12h³¹⁶	Raptors/musculoskeletal surgical repair
	35-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	35-50 mg/pigeon q24h × 7-14 days⁵¹⁰	Pigeons
	50-75 mg/kg PO, IM q12h × 7-10 days⁶⁴^,¹⁴⁹^,⁷⁰²	Psittacines, raptors/pododermatitis, osteomyelitis
	100 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁷¹	Raptors
	100 mg/kg IM q12h⁶⁴	Psittacines
	100-200 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	2000 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days⁶³	Waterfowl/Pasteurella, mycoplasmal tenosynovitis
	Topical³¹⁶	Raptors/mixture of lincomycin (50 mg/mL) and tobramycin (10 mg/mL) was used to flush the flexor tendon sheath
Lincomycin/spectinomycin (LS-50 Water Soluble, Upjohn; Linco-Spectin 100 Soluble Powder, Upjohn)	—	Effective against gram-positive bacteria, Mycoplasma
	50 mg/kg PO q24h⁵³⁴	Most species
	528 mg/L drinking water for first 5 days of life³⁰⁹	Turkey poults/PD; Mycoplasma airsacculitis
	750 mg/L drinking water × 3-7 days¹¹⁹	Waterfowl
	¼-½ tsp/L drinking water × 10-14 days¹³⁴	Most species/using soluble powder 16.7 g lincomycin and 33.3 g spectinomycin per 2.55 oz powder
	2.5-5 mg/chick IM³¹⁰ once	Chicken chicks/PD; may prevent E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus infections; injectable form not available in the United States
Marbofloxacin (Zeniquin, Pfizer)	—	Fluoroquinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds;²⁵⁸ less likely to cause emesis compared to enrofloxacin;⁷⁰² use with caution in juvenile birds;³⁴¹ may adversely affect molt¹⁴⁹
	2 mg/kg PO q24h²⁶	Broiler chickens/PD
	2-3 mg/kg IV, IO q24h²⁸⁰^,²⁸¹	Raptors/PD
	2.5-5 mg/kg PO q24h¹¹⁶	Blue and gold macaws/PD
	3-12 mg/kg PO q24h³¹⁹	Turkeys/PD
	5 mg/kg PO q24h¹⁴⁶	Most species
	5 mg/kg IM, IV¹⁸³	Ostriches/PD
	10-15 mg/kg PO, IM q12-24h⁶³^,¹⁴⁹^,²⁷⁹^,⁷⁰²	Raptors, bustards/PD
Meropenem (Merrem, Abbott)	—	Broad-spectrum carbapenem antibiotic; penetrates well into most body fluids and tissues, including cerebrospinal fluid
	175 mg/kg IM q24h⁷²⁵	Pigeons/PD
Metronidazole	—	Active against most anaerobes; see Table 5-4
	10 mg/kg IM q24h × 2 days⁸¹²	Psittacines
	10-30 mg/kg PO q12h × 10 days⁸¹²	Psittacines
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-7 days⁵⁰^,⁶³^,⁶⁰⁹	Most species, including raptors, psittacines/anaerobes
	50 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days⁶⁹²	Amazon parrots, cockatoos/anaerobic and hemorrhagic enteritis
Minocycline	—	Products or foods containing Ca, Al, Mg, Fe reduce or alter absorption; outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic²⁷⁰
	10 mg/kg PO q12h⁵⁵⁹	Penguins
	15 mg/kg PO q12h⁶⁴⁹	Raptors/some anaerobes
	5000 mg/kg feed¹⁶	Parakeets/use as antibiotic impregnated millet
Miporamicin	100 mg/kg feed × 5 days⁷⁸⁷	Poultry/macrolide; under development; make preparation fresh daily
Neomycin	—	Aminoglycoside/not absorbed from gastrointestinal tract; potentially nephrotoxic when administered IM; use is generally limited to topical formulations for skin, eyes, and ears, and, occasionally, oral treatment of enteric infections
	5-10 mg/kg IM q12h³⁴¹	Raptors/toxic if overdosed
	10 mg/kg PO q24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	10 mg/kg PO q8-12h⁹⁶	Most species
	80-100 mg/L drinking water⁶⁷²	Canaries
	80-264 mg/L drinking water¹¹⁹	Waterfowl
	126 mg/L drinking water¹⁰²	Galliformes
	70-220 mg/kg feed × 14-21 days⁷⁰^,¹¹⁹	Waterfowl, galliformes/Clostridium, necrotizing enteritis
	Topical q6-12h⁶⁷²	Most species/superficial wounds; cover with bandage; may be absorbed systemically and may cause ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity
Nitrofuran	—	Systemic and topical use banned in poultry used for human consumption because of its carcinogenic properties²⁵⁷
	26 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days¹¹⁹	Galliformes
	50-200 mg/kg feed × 5-7 days¹¹⁹	Galliformes/Clostridium, Salmonella
Nitrofurazone	—	Systemic use banned in food-producing birds because of its carcinogenic properties;²⁵⁷ may be hepatotoxic; avoid use or reduce dosage in hot weather; do not use in finches or pigeons⁴⁶⁸^,⁶⁹³
	0.3 mg/L drinking water × 7 days⁶⁷¹	Lories, mynahs/do not put in lory nectar
	0.6 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days⁵¹⁸	Most species
Norfloxacin (Noroxin, Merck; Vetriflox 20% Oral Solution, Lavet Ltd, Budapest)	—	Fluoroquinolone; not approved for use in food-producing birds;²⁵⁸ administration of the total daily dose to chickens over 2-4 hr (pulse dosing) has been recommended⁷⁶⁵
	3-5 mg/kg PO q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	8 mg/kg PO q24h²⁷	Chickens/PD
	10 mg/kg PO q24h⁴³⁹	Chickens, geese/PD
	10 mg/kg PO q6-8h⁴³⁹	Turkeys/PD
	15 mg/kg in water over 2-4 hr⁷¹⁶	Turkeys/PD; once per day pulse dosing was more efficacious than continuous dosing in the water
	20-40 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days⁴⁷⁶	Chickens
	100 mg/L drinking water × 5 days⁷¹⁶	Chickens/PD
	175 mg/L drinking water × 5 days⁶⁸¹	Chickens
Novobiocin sodium	15-30 mg/kg PO q24h⁷⁸⁷	Poultry/effective against some gram-positive cocci
	220-385 mg/kg feed⁵¹¹	Poultry, waterfowl
Oleandomycin	—	Macrolide; not available in the United States
	25 mg/kg IM q24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	50 mg/kg PO q24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
Orbifloxacin (Orbax, Schering-Plough)	15-20 mg/kg PO q24h³³⁵	Japanese quail/PD
Ormetoprim-sulfadimethoxine (Primor, Pfizer)	—	See sulfonamides
	60 mg/kg PO q12h³²³	Pigeons
	475-951 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days³²³	Pigeons
	200-800 mg/kg feed¹¹⁹	Waterfowl/colibacillosis
Oxytetracycline	—	IM administration may cause muscle irritation or necrosis; may be useful in treating Chlamydophila, fowl cholera;⁸⁴⁹ products or foods containing Al, Ca, Mg, Fe reduce or alter absorption; outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic²⁷⁰
	2 mg/mL nebulization q4-6h²⁰⁸	Parakeets/requires ultrasonic nebulizer; therapeutic concentrations of antibiotic were present in lung and trachea; not effective in treating systemic infections outside the respiratory tract
	5 mg/kg SC, IM q12-24h⁷²	Chicken chicks/PD
	5 mg/kg IM q12h⁸⁴¹	Ratites
	10 mg/kg IM q3d⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	15-50 mg/kg SC, IM q12-24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	16 mg/kg IM q24h⁷⁹⁵	Great horned owls/PD
	23 mg/kg IV q6-8h⁷⁹⁵	Pheasants/PD
	25-50 mg/kg PO, IM q8h × 5-7 days⁶³	Raptors
	43 mg/kg IM q24h⁷⁹⁵	Pheasants/PD
	48 mg/kg IM q48h³⁶³	Owls
	50 mg/kg IM q24h × 5-7 days⁷⁰²	Psittacines
	50 mg/kg PO q6-8h³²⁰	Pigeons
	50-75 mg/kg SC²⁴²	Goffin’s cockatoos, blue and gold macaws
	50-100 mg/kg SC, IM q2-3d²⁰⁰^,²⁵¹	Cockatoos (PD), passerines
	50-200 mg/kg IM q3-5d⁷⁰²	Raptors
	58 mg/kg IM q24h⁷⁹⁵	Amazon parrots/PD
	80 mg/kg IM q48h⁷⁰²	Pigeons <400 g
	200 mg/kg IM q24h⁵⁰^,⁶³	Most species including waterfowl/Pasteurella
	130-400 mg/L drinking water⁷⁰^,³²⁰	Pigeons
	650-2000 mg/L drinking water × 5-14 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	2500 mg/L drinking water and 2500 mg/kg feed⁷⁰²^,⁸⁷³	Chickens (PD), turkeys (PD), waterfowl/simultaneous medication of feed and water required to reach therapeutic level
	300 mg/kg soft feed × 5-14 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
Penicillin	50,000 IU/kg IM¹¹⁹	Waterfowl/Erysipelas, new duck disease
	8 g/40 g packet bone cement⁸¹⁴	PMMA beads (ratio 1:5)
Penicillin benzathine/procaine	—	Anecdotal reports suggest procaine penicillin should not be used in birds <1 kg BW because of possible toxic effects⁸¹¹
	200 mg/kg IM q24h⁵⁰	Most species
Penicillin G	6 mg/kg IV¹³⁰	Ostriches, emus/PD; rapidly eliminated; small volume of distribution
Penicillin procaine	—	Anecdotal reports suggest procaine penicillin should not be used in birds <1 kg BW; adverse reactions (possible toxic effects) described in finches, canaries, budgerigars, cockatiels²³⁹^,⁸¹¹
	100 mg/kg IM q24-48h³⁴⁹	Turkeys/PD
Piperacillin (Pipracil, Wyeth)	—	Extended-spectrum penicillin with broad-spectrum activity against many gram-positive and gram-negative aerobic and anaerobic organisms including Pseudomonas;⁷⁰² not available as a veterinary product in the United States; see piperacillin/tazobactam below⁵⁶⁴
	25 mg/kg IM⁸¹¹	Ratites (chicks <6 mo of age)
	75-100 mg/kg IM q4-6h⁸¹¹^,⁸¹²	Amazon parrots
	100 mg/kg IM q12h¹⁹⁷	Psittacines/PD
	100 mg/kg IM q12h¹	Ostrich chicks/administer concurrent to amikacin (20 mg/kg IM q12h)
	100 mg/kg IM, IV q8-12h⁵⁷⁷^,⁶⁴⁹^,⁷⁰²	Pigeons, raptors, cranes
	100 mg/kg IM q4-6h⁶⁷⁸	Red-tailed hawks, great horned owls/PD
	100-200 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h⁶⁹⁶^,⁷⁰²	Most species, including psittacines
	200 mg/kg IM q8h⁶⁶⁶	Budgerigars (PD), raptors
	200 mg/kg IM, IV q4-8h²⁴⁴^,⁶⁹⁶^,⁸¹¹	Most species, including passerines
	0.02 mL (4 mg) in macaw eggs; 0.01 mL (2 mg) in small eggs⁵¹⁷	Eggs/inject 200 mg/mL solution into air cell on days 14, 18, and 22
Piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn, Tazocin, Wyeth)	100 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h¹¹⁸^,⁵⁶⁴	Most species, including psittacines/PD in Amazon parrots
Polymyxin B	—	Polypeptide antibiotic; effective against most gram-negative bacteria; potentially significant adverse effects on the renal and neurologic systems⁵
	10-15 mg/kg IM q24h³⁴¹	Raptors/not absorbed if given PO
	50,000 U/L drinking water³⁸⁷	Canaries
	50,000 U/kg soft feed³⁸⁷	Canaries
Povidone-iodine	Topical to lesions, then wash off⁶³	Raptors/wound cleansing; antibacterial, antifungal activity
Rifabutin (Mycobutin, Pharmacia)	15-45 mg/kg PO q24h²⁰⁰^,⁶⁹⁵^,⁸²⁴	Most species including passerines/Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
Rifampicin	—	See rifampin
Rifampin	—	Most species/Mycobacterium; use with other agents (see Table 5-45); may cause/be associated with hepatitis, CNS signs, depression, and vomiting; yellow-orange urates observed in bustards⁷⁰²
	10-20 mg/kg PO q12-24h²⁰⁰^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹¹	Most species including passerines, psittacines/Mycobacterium
	45 mg/kg PO q24h⁷⁴⁹^,⁸²⁴	Most species, including Amazon parrots, cranes
Silver sulfadiazine	Topical q12-24h²²⁸^,⁶⁷²	Most species/burns, ulcers; Amazon foot necrosis; bandage application preferred
Spectinomycin (Spectam, Agri Labs)	10-30 mg/kg IM q8-12h⁶⁴	Psittacines
Spectinomycin (Spectam, Agri Labs)	25-35 mg/kg IM q8-12h³²²	Pigeons
	165-275 mg/L drinking water³²³	Pigeons
	200-400 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	400 mg/kg soft feed¹⁹⁸	Canaries
Spiramycin (Provamycin, Rovamycin)	—	Macrolide; not available in the United States
	20 mg/kg IM q24h³⁴¹	Raptors
	250 mg/kg PO q24h⁵¹¹	Most species, including raptors/poorly absorbed
	200-400 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	400 mg/kg soft feed¹⁹⁸	Canaries
Streptomycin (Streptomycin Sulfate, Roerig)	—	May be nephrotoxic; not recommended;⁶⁷² consider amikacin as an alternative; Mycobacterium; use in combination with other agents (see Table 5-45)
	15 mg/kg PO q24h³⁴¹	Raptors/highly neurotoxic
	20-40 mg/kg PO q24h⁴⁵²	Most species
	25-50 mg/kg IM q24h	Chickens/PD
	30 mg/kg IM q12h⁵⁰	Most species
Sulfachlorpyridazine (Vetisulid, Fort Dodge)	—	Antiprotozoal drug
Sulfachlorpyridazine (Vetisulid, Fort Dodge)	150-300 mg/L drinking water⁶⁷²	Canaries
	400 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days⁶⁹¹	Pigeons
Sulfadimethoxine (Albon, Pfizer)	—	Coccidiostat; see sulfonamides
Sulfadimethoxine (Albon, Pfizer)	25-55 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-7 days³⁹²^,⁶⁶⁵	Raptors/loading dose at higher end × 1 day
	50 mg/kg PO q24h¹¹²	Cranes
	190-250 mg/L drinking water⁵¹¹	Pigeons/loading dose 375 mg/L drinking water
	330-400 mg/L drinking water on day 1 followed by 200-265 mg/L × 4 days³²³	Pigeons
Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-501, Solvay Animal Health; Sul-Q-Nox, Alfarma)	—	See sulfonamides
	250-500 mg/kg feed¹¹⁹	Waterfowl/avian cholera, new duck disease
Sulfonamides	—	Broad-spectrum antimicrobial; prohibited in food-producing birds;⁸⁴⁹ contraindicated with dehydration, liver disease, or bone marrow suppression; gastrointestinal upset, regurgitation are common especially in macaws; resistance by Pseudomonas is common;⁶⁹⁶ use for longer than 2 wk may require vitamin supplementation
Tetracycline	—	Products or foods containing Al, Ca, Mg, Fe reduce or alter absorption; outdated tetracycline is nephrotoxic²⁷⁰
	50 mg/kg PO q8h²⁰⁰^,⁶⁷²	Most species, including passerines
	200-250 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹³⁴^,⁶⁷¹	Most species/gavage
	40-200 mg/L drinking water⁶⁶^,¹¹⁹^,¹³⁴	Most species, including game birds
	100 mg/L drinking water⁶⁴⁵	Rheas
	200 mg/L drinking water⁶⁹²	Pigeons
	666 mg/L drinking water⁷⁰²	Pigeons
	100-600 mg/kg feed⁷⁰^,¹¹⁹	Game birds
Tiamulin (Denagard; Novartis)	—	Bacteriostatic antibiotic; effective against Mycoplasma, some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and spirochetes⁶¹⁴
	12.5 mg/kg PO × 3 days⁹⁴	Poultry/intestinal spirochetosis
	25-50 mg/kg PO q24h¹⁷⁷	Most species
	30 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days⁶²⁹	Poultry adults
	60 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days⁶²⁹	Poultry chicks
	225-250 mg/L drinking water × 3-7 days⁷⁰^,⁷⁰²	Poultry, pigeons
	1000 mg/L water⁶²⁹	Poultry eggs/dip
	300-400 mg/kg feed × 7 days⁷⁰^,⁶²⁹	Game birds
Tiamulin/chlortetracycline (Tetramutin, Novartis)	1-1.5 mg/kg feed × 7 days⁷⁷²	Chickens/Mycoplasma; Brachyspira-related diseases; may be used with salinomycin at low doses of 60 mg/kg without signs of incompatibility³⁷¹
Ticarcillin (Ticar, SmithKline Beecham)	—	Extended-spectrum penicillin; very poor absorption if injectable given PO
	75-100 mg/kg IM q4-6h⁶⁹⁶	Amazon parrots
	150-200 mg/kg IV q2-4h²⁰⁰	Passerines, soft bills
	200 mg/kg IM, IV q6-12h⁹⁶^,⁶⁹³	Most species, including pigeons, raptors/Pseudomonas²⁴²
	200 mg/kg IM q2-4h⁷²⁴	Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD
Ticarcillin/clavulanate (Timentin, SmithKline Beecham)	100 mg/kg IM, IV¹⁴⁶	Most species/frequency not reported
Ticarcillin/clavulanate (Timentin, SmithKline Beecham)	200 mg/kg IM, IV q12h⁶⁹²	Most species
Tilmicosin (Micotil 300 Injection, Provitil-powder and Pulmotil AC-liquid, Elanco)	—	Macrolide; handle with caution; potentially fatal to humans⁶¹⁴
	30 mg/kg PO q24h⁹	Poultry/PD
	100-500 mg/L drinking water × 5 days³⁹⁵^,⁴¹⁶	Poultry chicks/Mycoplasma
Tobramycin	—	Aminoglycoside; used only for severe infections caused by resistant Pseudomonas infections;⁷⁰² neurotoxicity (irreversible auditory and vestibular ototoxicity) or nephrotoxicity may develop⁵
	0.25-0.5 mL intraarticular flush q24h × 7-10 days⁶³	Raptors/septic arthritis
	2.5 mg/kg IM q8h¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	2.5-5 mg/kg IM, IV q12h⁶⁹⁶^,⁷⁰²	Psittacines, passerines, raptors, pheasants, cranes
	5 mg/kg IM q12h⁵⁰	Most species
	10 mg/kg IM q12h × 5-7 days¹⁴⁹^,⁵³⁴	Raptors
	Topical³¹⁶	A mixture of lincomycin (50 mg/mL) and tobramycin (10 mg/mL) was used to flush the flexor tendon sheath
Trimethoprim	—	Bacteriostatic activity against some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
	10-20 mg/kg PO q8h¹⁹⁵^,¹⁹⁹^,⁵¹¹	Psittacines, passerines, pigeons (PD)
Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine (Tribrissen, Schering-Plough; Septra, Monarch)	—	See sulfonamides
	8 mg/kg SC, IM q12h⁵⁷⁷	Cranes
	12-60 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-7 days⁶³	Raptors/useful for sensitive infections in neonates
	16-24 mg/kg PO q8-12h⁵⁷⁷	Cranes
	20 mg/kg SC, IM q12h¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	30 mg/kg PO q8h³⁴³	Psittacines; combine with pyrimethamine for treatment of sarcocystosis
	30 mg/kg PO, IM, IV q12h³¹⁵	Ostriches/PD
	60 mg/kg PO q12h³²³	Pigeons
	107 mg/L drinking water⁷⁰	Galliformes
	475-950 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days³²³	Pigeons
Trimethoprim/sulfatroxazole	—	See sulfonamides
Trimethoprim/sulfatroxazole	10-50 mg/kg PO q12h²⁰⁰	Passerines
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim, Roche; Septra, Burroughs Wellcome)	—	See sulfonamides
	8 mg/kg IM q12h⁷⁰²	Psittacines
	10-50 mg/kg PO q24h²⁰⁰	Passerines
	20 mg/kg PO q8-12h⁷⁰²	Psittacines
	21 mg/kg PO q12h¹	Ostriches
	40-50 mg/kg PO q12h²⁴⁴	Psittacines
	48 mg/kg PO, IM q12h³⁹⁷	Raptors
	60 mg/kg PO q24h¹⁹⁵	Pigeons/PD
	60-72 mg/kg PO q12h¹¹¹	Cranes
	75 mg/kg IM q12h⁵⁰	Most species/reduce dose if regurgitation occurs²⁴²
	100 mg/kg PO q12h⁵⁰	Most species, including psittacines
	144 mg/kg PO q8-12h⁶⁹⁶	Most species
	360-400 mg/L drinking water × 10-14 days⁶⁹¹	Most species, including pigeons
	400 mg/kg feed⁶³³	Geese
Tylosin (Tylan, Elanco)	—	Macrolide; effective against gram-positive bacteria, Mycoplasma, Chlamydophila, Pasteurella; very irritating to muscles when administered IM; poor absorption if injectable given PO³²²
	3-5 mg/kg IM, IV q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	5-10 mg/kg PO q8h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	6.6-11 mg/kg SC^c	Galliformes
	10-40 mg/kg IM q6-8h²⁰⁰^,⁶⁷²	Poultry, passerines
	15 mg/kg IM q8h⁴⁶⁹	Cranes/PD
	15-30 mg/kg IM q12h × 3 day⁶³^,¹⁴⁹	Raptors
	17 mg/kg IM q24h × 7 days⁵³²	Emus/Mycoplasma
	20-30 mg/kg IM q8h × 3-7 days⁶³	Waterfowl/Mycoplasma
	20-40 mg/kg IM q8h⁷⁰²	Psittacines
	25 mg/kg IM q8h⁴⁶⁹	Emus/PD
	25 mg/kg IM q6h⁴⁶⁹	Pigeons, quail/PD
	30 mg/kg IM q12h⁶³	Most species/Mycoplasma
	50 mg/kg PO q24h⁷⁰^,²⁰⁰	Passerines, pigeons
	50 mg/L drinking water⁶⁹²	Most species
	250-400 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	300 mg/L drinking water × 6 wk⁵⁶⁸	House finches/Mycoplasma
	500 mg/L drinking water × 3-28 days⁷⁰^,³⁹⁵^,⁷⁰²^,⁷⁸⁸	Pigeons, galliformes, waterfowl, emus/Mycoplasma
	800 mg/L drinking water³²³	Pigeons
	1000 mg/L drinking water × 21 days⁵¹²	House finches/Mycoplasma; give in conjunction with ophthalmic ciprofloxacin
	2000 mg/L drinking water³²¹^,³²²	Pigeons, poultry/Mycoplasma, Haemophilus
	200 mg/kg feed⁷⁰	Galliformes
	100 mg/10 mL saline nasal flush⁴⁴ × 10 days⁷⁰²	Waterfowl/Mycoplasma
Virginiamycin (Stafac, Pfizer)	22 mg/kg feed⁷⁸⁷	Poultry

^a Most drug doses used in birds should be considered experimental. Patients should be monitored for adverse effects and treatment failure.²⁴²

^b Wojick K. Personal communication. 2011.

^c Ley D. Personal communication. 1997.

TABLE 5-2 Antifungal Agents Used in Birds.

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Acetic acid (vinegar)	16 mL/L drinking water³⁸⁷	Most species/gastrointestinal yeast infections
Amphotericin B	—	Fungicidal; lipid-based amphotericin B products are now available that have less toxicity than conventional desoxycholate form; Macrorhabdus ornithogaster (avian gastric yeast); preferred IV agent for aspergillosis; intratracheal administration for syringeal aspergilloma may cause tracheitis; potentially nephrotoxic; resistance may develop⁶⁰⁸
	1.5 mg/kg IV q8h × 3-7 days⁵²^,²³⁸^,⁶⁵¹	Most species
	1 mg/kg intratracheal q8-12h, dilute to 1 mL with sterile water⁶⁵¹^,⁶⁷¹^,⁶⁷²	Psittacines, raptors/aspergillosis
	1 mg/kg intratracheal q12h × 12 days, then q48h × 5 wk⁶³	Raptors/syringeal aspergilloma
	100-109 mg/kg PO by gavage q12h × 10-30 days⁵¹¹^,⁵³⁵^,⁶⁰⁹^,⁶¹⁴	Budgerigars/avian gastric yeast (“megabacteria”); compound in simple syrup; resistance reported in budgerigars in Australia⁶⁰⁹
	0.05 mg/mL sterile water⁵²	Most species/nasal flush
	0.2 mL PO q12h × 10 days¹⁴⁷	Budgerigars/avian gastric yeast; use IV formulation (5 mg/mL)
	0.25-1 mL PO q24h × 4-5 days⁶³	Raptor neonates/candidiasis; not absorbed from alimentary tract
	1000 mg/L drinking water × 10 days²³¹	Budgerigars/avian gastric yeast
	Topical¹⁴⁷	Apply 10% solution to oropharynx
	1.35 mg/kg topical q24h of a liposomally encapsulated formulation in a sterile, water-soluble lubricating gel⁷⁴	Heron
	7 mg/mL saline q12h⁸¹⁴	Most species/nebulization × 15 min
Amphotericin B (3% cream)	Topical to affected area q12h³⁸⁷^,⁶⁷²	Most species/mycoses
Amphotericin B (A)/proteolytic nasal flush (P)	Nasal flush (A) 1 mg/kg + (P) 0.2-0.4 mL diluted in 20 mL saline¹¹ q24h	Uses a commercial neomycin-chymotrypsin-trypsin-hydrocortisone ointment (Kymar, Schering-Plough); 10 mL per naris (flushed vigorously in small amounts)
Caprylic acid (Kaprycidin A, Ecological Formulas)	—	Naturally occurring fatty acid with antifungal properties
Caprylic acid (Kaprycidin A, Ecological Formulas)	271 mg/kg PO⁸¹³	Most species/adjunctive treatment with imidazoles; seldom used
Clotrimazole	—	Broad-spectrum antifungal agent; inhibits the growth of pathogenic yeasts such as Candida albicans; used commonly as adjunctive therapy for aspergillosis; administer via air sac, intratracheally, nebulization, or topically
	2 mg/kg intratracheal q24h × 5 days⁶⁹²	Psittacines/syringeal aspergilloma; apply with catheter directly into syrinx during anesthesia
	Inject 10 mg/kg into air sacs⁶⁹²	Psittacines/dilute in propylene glycol to 2.5 mg/mL; divide total dose between the 4 most accessible air sacs; toxic and may result in death in African grey parrots and other birds if injected into the viscera or IM⁶²⁹
	10 mg/mL saline flush²³⁸^,⁶⁰⁹	Most species/effective against Aspergillus at sites that can be flushed; nasal flush using 1% solution
	1% solution⁸¹⁴	Nebulization × 30-60 min
Enilconazole emulsion	—	Imidazole antifungal agent with activity against Penicillium and dermatophytes¹⁶
	6 mg/kg PO q12h¹⁶	Eclectus parrots/glossal candidiasis; an elevation of AST was seen after 7 days of treatment
	1 mg (0.5 mL)/kg intratracheal of a 1:10 dilution q24h × 7-14 days⁷⁰²	Falcons/aspergillosis
	200 mg/L drinking water¹⁶	Canaries/cutaneous dermatophytosis
	Topical 1:10 dilution q12h × 21-28 days⁶³	Raptors/cutaneous aspergillosis, candidiasis
	Topical or intratracheal 1:10-1:100 dilution⁶⁴	Psittacines/aspergillosis, candidiasis
	3 topical soakings q3d⁶⁵¹	Raptors, ostriches/dermatophytosis
	0.1 mL/kg in 5 mL sterile water, nebulize × 30 min, 5 days on, 2 off, up to 3 mo³³⁸	Raptors/aspergillosis
Fluconazole (Diflucan, Pfizer)	—	Fungistatic; penetrates well into brain, cerebrospinal fluid, and eyes;¹⁶ only indicated if topical treatment (i.e., nystatin) is not feasible;¹⁶water-soluble; safest therapeutic index of the azoles; Candida, avian gastric yeast; may be ineffective against aspergillosis;⁶⁵¹ death observed in budgerigars at 10 mg/kg PO q12h (this dose was also ineffective against avian gastric yeast)⁶⁰⁹
	2-5 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days⁶³^,⁵⁸³	Most species, including raptors/gastrointestinal, systemic candidiasis; CNS, ocular mycoses
	4-6 mg/kg PO q12h²⁴⁰	Juvenile psittacines/candidiasis
	5 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁴⁸	Cockatiels/candidiasis
	5-10 mg/kg PO q24h⁴⁹	Gouldian finches/candidiasis
	5-15 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-60 days or longer⁶⁹²	Most species/aspergillosis, mycelial candidiasis; use lower dose for candidiasis
	8 mg/kg PO q24h × 30 days⁸¹²	Psittacines/cryptococcosis
	10 mg/kg PO q48h⁶⁴⁸	Cockatiels/candidiasis
	10-20 mg/kg PO × 30 days³⁸⁷	Red-tailed hawks, gyrfalcons/aspergillosis
	15 mg/kg PO q12h × ≥ 28 days⁶⁹⁴	Pigeons/aspergillosis
	15 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days following cessation of clinical signs¹¹	Psittacines/chronic nasal aspergillosis
	20 mg/kg PO q48h²⁴⁰	Psittacines/PD; mucosal, systemic yeast infections; 2-3 treatments for resistant candidiasis
	100 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁰⁸	Chickens/avian gastric yeast
	100 mg/kg soft food⁴⁹	Gouldian finches/candidiasis
	25 mg/L nectar³³¹	Hummingbirds/aspergillosis
	50 mg/L drinking water × 14-60 days⁶⁹²	Most species/systemic mycoses; candidiasis
	100 mg/L drinking water × 8 days⁶⁴⁸	Cockatiels/candidiasis
	150 mg/L drinking water⁴⁹	Gouldian finches/candidiasis
Flucytosine (Ancobon, Roche)	—	Fungistatic agent; penetrates well into CNS; used prophylactically in raptors (especially falcons) and waterfowl to prevent aspergillosis;^a may be administered as adjunctive treatment; about 50% of Aspergillus strains are resistant;⁶⁸⁰ toxicity is low, however adverse effects may include gastrointestinal effects, hepatotoxicity, bone marrow depression⁸⁰^,⁶⁸⁰
	20-30 mg/kg PO q6h × 20-90 days³⁶³	Raptors/aspergillosis
	20-75 mg/kg PO q12h × 21 days⁷⁰²	Psittacines/generalized yeast or fungal infections
	50 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-28 days¹⁴⁷^,⁵⁸³	Psittacines, passerines, raptors
	50-75 mg/kg PO q8h⁶⁵¹	Raptors/aspergillosis prophylaxis
	60 mg/kg PO q12h (birds >500 g)¹¹	Most species, including galliformes, swans/syringeal aspergilloma
	75 mg/kg q12h × 5-7 days, then q24h × 14 days⁶⁵¹	Raptors/prophylaxis for prevention of aspergillosis;^a recommended to treat for 1 wk prior to and 2 wk after move; used routinely for domestically raised gyrfalcons and gyrfalcon hybrids from age 45 days
	75-120 mg/kg PO q6h⁵⁸³	Most species
	80-100 mg/kg PO q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	100-250 mg/kg PO q12h⁴⁰²	Psittacine neonates
	120 mg/kg PO q6h³⁹⁷	Raptors/aspergillosis
	150 mg/kg PO q12h (birds <500 g)¹¹	Most species, including psittacines, galliformes, swans/syringeal aspergilloma
	250 mg/kg PO q12h³⁹⁷	Raptors/candidiasis
	250 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-17 days⁷⁸⁰	Finches/endoventricular mycoses; can use with chlorhexidine in drinking water
	50-250 mg/kg feed⁶⁷¹^,⁶⁷²	Psittacines, mynah birds
Griseofulvin	10 mg/kg PO q12h × 21 days⁶³^,⁷⁰²	Pigeons/dermatophytosis; gavage
Griseofulvin	30-50 mg/kg in drinking water q24h⁵¹¹^,⁸¹⁰	Ostriches/mycotic dermatitis
Iodine, 1% solution	Topical⁶⁵¹	Oral or cutaneous candidiasis
Itraconazole (Sporanox, Janssen)	—	Most species/systemic mycoses, superficial candidiasis, dermatophytosis; fungistatic; maximal oral bioavailability when taken with a full meal;⁵ commercially available suspension is recommended as a first choice; don’t use compounded formulations because bulk drug not bioavailable or stable;⁹³^,²⁴⁵ study using SC controlled release gel formulation in ducks showed unacceptable tissue and plasma levels of the drug⁷⁹⁹
	2.5-5 mg/kg PO q24h⁵⁸⁵^,⁶⁰⁹	African grey parrots/anorexia, depression, and toxicity reported at higher doses in this species²⁴¹
	5 mg/kg PO q24h¹¹	Galliformes, swans, ratites/aspergillosis
	5-10 mg/kg PO q24h⁵⁸⁵	Blue-fronted Amazon parrots/PD; aspergillosis; 10 mg/kg is required to achieve therapeutic concentrations in poorly perfused tissues
	5-10 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 10-14 days, then q48h³⁶³	Raptors/aspergillosis prophylaxis^a
	5-10 mg/kg PO q12-24h³⁹⁷	Raptors
	5-10 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days, followed by q24h for a total of 14 days⁶⁵¹	Raptors/Class I aspergillosis (mild, vague signs with inconclusive diagnostics or without histologic confirmation)
	5-10 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days, followed by q24h × 60-90 days⁶⁵¹	Raptors/Class II-IV aspergillosis
	5-10 mg/kg PO q12h⁴⁰⁹^,⁶⁷¹	Passerines (towhees), waterfowl, penguins/aspergillosis prophylaxis in passerines; aspergillosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis in others
	6 mg/kg PO q12h⁴⁸³	Pigeons/PD; dosage will achieve fungicidal plasma concentrations
	6-8 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-7 days then q24h × 14 days⁶⁵¹	Raptors/prevention of aspergillosis;^a recommended to treat for 1 wk prior and 2 wk after move, and routinely for domestically raised gyrfalcons and gyrfalcon hybrids from age 45 days
	6-10 mg/kg PO³⁸⁴	Ratites/preferred azole
	10 mg/kg PO q24h³⁹⁴^,⁵⁸³	Red-tailed hawks, gentoo penguins/PD; steady state plasma concentrations achieved within 2 wk¹⁶
	10 mg/kg PO q24h × 14-90 days with food⁵⁸³^,⁵⁸⁴^,⁶⁰⁹	Psittacines/use in combination with non-azoles
	10 mg/kg PO q12-24h⁵⁸⁴	Pigeons
	10 mg/kg PO q12h × 21-60 days¹⁴⁷^,⁷⁸⁰	Finches/endoventricular mycoses; can use with chlorhexidine in drinking water
	15 mg/kg PO q12h up to 4-6 wk³⁶³	Raptors/aspergillosis
	20 mg/kg PO q24h⁹³	Penguins/PD
	26 mg/kg PO q12h	Pigeons/PD; fungicidal levels achieved in respiratory tissue; further toxicologic studies are required
	200 mg/kg feed up to 100 days⁶⁶³	Gouldian finches/PD; dermatomycoses; beads from capsules were mixed with small amount of oil and seed
Ketoconazole (Nizoral, Janssen)	—	Most species/systemic mycoses (e.g., aspergillosis), candidiasis; fungistatic; less toxic than amphotericin B; more toxic than itraconazole; may be associated with potentially fatal hepatotoxicity;⁵ >20 mg/kg may cause regurgitation (if regurgitation, discontinue for 1-2 days, then restart)
	3 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days⁷⁰	Pigeons
	5-10 mg/kg PO q24h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	8 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days⁷⁰	Ostriches
	10-20 mg/kg PO q24h⁷⁰	Ostriches
	10-30 mg/kg PO q12h × 30-60 days⁶⁹²	Most species
	12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 30 days⁶⁷²	Swans/candidiasis
	15 mg/kg PO q12h³⁹⁷	Raptors/candidiasis
	20 mg/kg PO q24h × 14 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines, passerines, raptors
	20 mg/kg PO q12h⁴⁰²	Psittacine neonates
	20 mg/kg PO q8h × 7-14 days⁶⁰⁹	Psittacines/refractory candidiasis
	20-30 mg/kg PO q8h²³⁸	Cockatoos
	20-40 mg/kg PO q12h × 15-60 days⁶⁹³	Pigeons
	25 mg/kg PO q12h × 14 days⁷⁰²	Ratites, raptors/aspergillosis
	30 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-14 days⁴²⁵	Amazon parrots/PD
	30 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-30 days⁴²⁵^,⁶⁹²	Pigeons (PD), raptors/prophylactic in raptors for aspergillosis
	50 mg/kg/day PO¹⁵⁰	Toucans
	60 mg/kg PO q12h⁸³⁸	Raptors/PD (common buzzard); aspergillosis
	200 mg/L drinking water, nectar, or soft feed × 7-14 days⁴⁹^,¹⁹⁸^,³³¹	Canaries, hummingbirds, gouldian finches/dissolve crushed tablet in ½-1 tsp vinegar
Miconazole	—	Fungistatic; inhibits the growth of Candida albicans, Malassezia, and dermatophytes; injectable miconazole is not available in the United States
	5 mg/kg intratracheal q12h × 5 days⁸⁴²	Psittacines/10 mg/mL solution diluted with saline; syringeal mycoses; use with flucytosine; clotrimazole may be an alternative
	10 mg/kg IM q24h × 6-12 days⁷⁰²	Raptors/generalized aspergillosis
	20 mg/kg IV q8h⁷⁰²	Psittacines/candidiasis, cryptococcosis
	Topical to affected areas q12h⁶⁵¹^,⁷⁷⁹	Cutaneous fungal infections; used in conjunction with oral itraconazole; dermatophytosis
Nystatin	—	Drug of choice for treatment of candidiasis; not systemically absorbed across intact gastrointestinal tract;⁵^,¹⁶ oral lesions must be treated by direct contact with medication;¹⁶ when treating neonates, administer separately from formula to maximize concentration and contact time¹⁶
	5000 U/bird PO q12h × 10 days²³¹^,²³²	Goldfinches/avian gastric yeast; ineffective in budgerigars
	20,000-100,000 U/bird PO q24h × 7 days⁷⁰^,⁷⁰²	Pigeons/candidiasis
	100,000 U/kg PO q12h³²²^,³⁹⁷	Pigeons, raptors
	250,000-430,000 U/kg PO q12h¹⁴⁷	Hummingbirds
	250,000-500,000 U/kg PO q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	300,000 U/kg PO q12h × 7-14 days⁶³^,²³⁸	Most species, including waterfowl
	300,000-600,000 U/kg PO q8-12h × 7-14 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	500,000 U/kg PO q8h × 5 days¹⁵⁹	Toucanette (safron)/candidiasis
	Topical q6h³⁶⁸	Hummingbirds/candidiasis; direct application using a cotton swab
	25,000 U/L nectar³⁶⁸	Hummingbirds
	100,000 U/L drinking water⁴⁹^,¹⁹⁸	Canaries, finches
	200,000 U/kg soft feed⁴⁹^,⁶³	Canaries, finches
Parconazole (Parcomyc, Janssen-Cilag)	30-60 mg/kg feed⁶⁸⁰	Guinea fowl/candidiasis; prophylaxis; not available in the United States
Pimaricin (Natamycin, Alcon)	1 drop in affected eye topically q8h⁷⁶⁸	Lovebirds/macrolide antifungal; keratomycosis
Povidone iodine	Topical to lesions, then rinse⁶³	Raptors/wound cleansing; antibacterial, antifungal activity
Silver sulfadiazine	Topical to affected areas q12-24h²²⁸^,⁶⁷²	Most species/bandage application preferred
STA solution (salicyclic acid 3 g, tannic acid 3 g, ethyl alcohol to 100 mL)	Topical⁷⁰²	Fungal dermatitis
Terbinafine	—	Fungicidal; questionable therapeutic potential for the treatment of aspergillosis in avian species; higher dose or use in combination with itraconazole may be more effective²⁴⁵
	10-15 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹⁷⁰	Most species
	15 mg/kg PO q24h⁵³	Penguins/PD
	15-30 mg/kg PO q12h²⁴⁵	Most species
	22 mg/kg PO q24h⁵⁴	Raptors/PD
	1 mg/mL solution via nebulization⁶³⁷	Most species
Voriconazole (Vfend, Pfizer)	—	Most active drug against aspergillosis, although some strains resistant;⁵⁵ difficult to extrapolate drug doses between species; safety unproven in birds; PO and IV solutions available; may need to adjust dose for long term treatment to maintain therapeutic concentrations;²⁴⁵ compounded suspensions stable up to 30 days at room temperature⁵⁶⁷
	10 mg/kg PO, IV q12h⁹⁵	Chickens/PD
	10 mg/kg PO q12h or 20 mg/kg q24h⁵⁵^–⁵⁷	Pigeons/PD
	12-18 mg/kg PO q12h²⁵⁴	African grey parrots/PD
	12.5 mg/kg PO q12h¹⁸⁸^,⁷²⁰	Raptors
	18 mg/kg PO q8h³⁰⁶	Amazons/PD
	20 mg/kg PO q24h × 21 days⁵⁹⁵	Many species
	40 mg/kg PO q24h⁷⁹⁸	Quail/PD

^a Prophylatic use of antifungal agents may be indicated in newly captured or admitted birds of susceptible species, and in birds undergoing change of management or transfer of enclosure.⁶⁵¹

TABLE 5-3 Antiviral and Immunomodulating Agents Used in Birds.

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Acemannan (Carravet, Carrington Laboratories)	1 mg/kg SC q7d⁸⁵⁷	Chemotherapeutic adjunct therapy
Acemannan (Carravet, Carrington Laboratories)	2 mg/kg intralesional q7d × 4 treatments⁸⁵⁷	Use before surgical debulking of fibrosarcomas
Acyclovir (Zovirax, Burroughs Wellcome)	—	Antiviral agent; active against herpesviruses and cytomegalovirus; IM injection of the water-soluble sodium salt (IV formulation) may cause severe muscle necrosis; phlebitis and neurologic signs may occur with IV administration; most effective when administered before clinical signs begin; birds should be treated for a minimum of 7 days; the reconstituted solution is unstable and should be divided into aliquots and frozen¹⁶^,⁷⁰²^,⁸¹²
	10 mg/kg IM q24h × 5-14 days starting 3 days postexposure¹⁵⁶	Chickens/Marek’s disease
	20-40 mg/kg IM q12h⁶⁸⁹	Psittacines/psittacine herpesvirus
	29 mg/bird PO q8h × 7 days⁶³	Pigeons/herpesvirus
	80 mg/kg PO q8h × 7 days⁵⁶⁹	Quaker parakeets/PD; psittacine herpesvirus prophylaxis or treatment
	120 mg/kg PO q12h⁶⁹⁷	Tragopans/PD
	330 mg/kg PO q12h × 4-7 days⁴⁰¹	Psittacine neonates/psittacine herpesvirus
	330 mg/kg PO q12h × 7-14 days³⁶³	Raptors/falcon and owl herpesvirus; may cause vomiting
	≤400 mg/kg feed¹⁵⁶	Quaker parakeets/herpesvirus
	1000 mg/L drinking water¹⁵⁶^,⁶⁷⁰	Quaker parakeets/herpesvirus; gavage
Amantadine (Symmetrel, Endo Labs)	—	Antiviral agent; inhibits replication of influenza A viruses¹⁵⁶
	1 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 wk²⁹⁶	African grey parrots/no effect on avian bornavirus infection
	10 mg/kg PO × 3 days pre- and 18 days post-exposure¹⁵⁶	Turkeys/influenza viruses; must be administered before and during virus exposure
	25 mg/kg PO × 10 days following infection¹⁵⁶	Chickens
	100 mg/L drinking water¹⁵⁶	Chickens/can use simultaneously with killed influenza vaccine
Echinacea (Echinacea solution, Biobotania)	0.5 mL/kg per L drinking water q24h × 5 days⁷⁰²	Psittacines/herbal immunostimulant
	1 mL/L drinking water⁶⁷¹	Psittacines; use alcohol-free formulation
Famciclovir (Famvir, Novartis)	25 mg/kg PO q12h⁸⁰⁷	Ducklings/PD; antiviral agent; duck hepatitis; toxic effects were not reported
Imiquimod cream (Aldara, 3M)	Applied topically 3×/wk several hr before the morning feeding⁴⁵¹	Psittacines/cloacal papillomatosis; thought to boost host cell-mediated immunity; masses decreased in size in one report, but not in another;⁴⁴⁷ complete remission did not occur in either
ImmunoRegulin (Propionibacterium Acnes, Neogen)	0.13 mg/kg (up to 0.08 mg [0.2 mL] max) SC, IM days 1,3,7,14,28,42, then q30d⁴⁵	Psittacines/immune therapy for chronic feather pickers; induces macrophage and lymphokine production; enhances cell-mediated immunity; increases natural killer cell activity; do not use with corticosteroids
Interferon α_2a	—	Glycoprotein with immunomodulating and antiproliferative capabilities as well as antiviral activity
	30 U q24h × 5 days, 30 U 2×/wk × 2 wk, then 30 U q7d × 2 wk²⁹⁹	Most species/proventricular dilatation disease; may be associated with temporary clinical improvement
	60-240 U/kg SC, IM q12h⁷³³	Most species/stock solution: mix 1 mL (3,000,000 U/mL) with 100 mL sterile water (30,000 U/mL); can freeze as 2 mL vials up to 1 yr; mix 2 mL of stock into 1 L LRS (=60 U/mL); refrigerate up to 3 mo

	1500 U/kg PO q24h¹⁶	Psittacines
	1,000,000 U IM q48h to q7d × 3 treatments⁷⁶²	African grey parrots/circovirus; omega alpha-2 interferon
	1000 U/L drinking water × 14-28 days⁶⁹¹	Pigeons/circovirus
Levamisole	—	Anthelmintic with immunostimulation properties; low therapeutic index (toxic reactions and deaths reported)
	1.25-2.5 mg/kg PO, SC⁶⁷⁰	Poultry
	2 mg/kg SC, IM q14d × 3 treatments⁸⁷^,⁶⁷²	Most species, including macaws
	11 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 wk¹³³	Most species
Penciclovir (Denavir, Novartis)	10 mg/kg IP q24h × 12-24 wk⁴⁶⁵	Ducks/PD; antiviral agent active against herpesviruses; duck hepatitis B virus; viral levels were significantly reduced; no toxic effects observed; dissolve in 2 mL of 1% DMSO
Rimantadine (Flumadine, Forest)	100 mg/L drinking water¹⁵⁶	Chickens/influenza viruses; must be used before and during exposure
Silymarin (milk thistle)	100-150 mg/kg PO divided q8-12h¹¹	Most species/hepatic antioxidant; used in patients with liver disease and as ancillary to chemotherapy; use an alcohol-free liquid formulation
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)	20-50 mg/kg IM q1-7d³⁹⁷^,⁶⁷²	Most species, including raptors/antioxidant; immunostimulant; nutritional support; acidify the gut

TABLE 5-4 Antiparasitic Agents Used in Birds.

Agent	Dosage	Species/Comments
Albendazole (11.36%) (Valbazen, Pfizer)	—	Broad-spectrum anthelmintic; may be toxic in keas, some Columbiformes at 50-100 mg/kg³⁶¹^,⁷⁵⁹
	5.2 mg/kg PO q12h × 3 days, repeat in 14 days⁸¹⁰	Ratites/flagellates, cestodes
	10 mg/kg PO once¹⁵⁸	Poultry/PK
	15-20 mg/kg PO once¹⁵⁰	Toucans
	25 mg/kg PO q24h × 90 days, then repeat × 120 days when signs returned⁶¹²	Cockatoos/Encephalitozoon hellem keratoconjunctivitis
	25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-4 days⁷⁵⁹	Doves, rock partridges/Capillaria
	47 mg/kg PO once, then repeat in 4 wk⁷⁴³	Chickens/lower ascarid, Heterakis fecal counts than nontreated
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days¹⁰⁸	Amazon parrots/microsporidian keratoconjunctivitis
	113-116 mg/23 kg q12h × 3 days, repeat in 14 wk⁴³	Ratites/protozoal infections
Amitraz (Mitaban, Upjohn)	—	Highly effective against Dermanyssus gallinae⁵⁰⁴
	Spray 2.5 L/bird with 0.025% solution (dilute 1 part amitraz [12.5%] with 500 parts water), repeat in 10 days¹⁰²	Ostriches/lice
Amprolium (Corid, TEVA; Amprol Plus MSD, AgVet)	—	Pyridimine derivative coccidiostat; although rarely encountered, efficacy can be reduced by high doses of thiamine;⁷⁵⁷ some coccidial organisms of mynahs, toucans have shown resistance⁴³
	2.2 mg/kg PO¹¹⁵	Sandhill cranes/ineffective in preventing experimentally induced disseminated visceral coccidiosis
	13-26 mg/kg PO³⁰⁸	Chickens/PK,PD; bioavailability almost 4 times greater in fasted birds
	25 mg/kg/day PO⁴³	Pigeons
	30 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days⁴³^,³⁴¹	Raptors
	5-100 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days⁴³	Most species/flock treatment
	50-100 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days¹⁷³^,⁵⁰⁶	Most species, including passerines, parakeets
	60 mg/L drinking water¹¹¹	Cranes
	200 mg/L drinking water³²³^,³²⁴	Pigeons/flock treatment
	250 mg/L drinking water × 7 days⁸⁴³	Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis; use in combination with pyrimethamine and primaquine
	575 mg/L drinking water¹¹⁹	Poultry/using a 9.6% solution
	¼ tsp/L drinking water × 3-5 days³²⁰^,³²¹	Pigeons, poultry/20% soluble powder
	115-235 mg/kg feed¹¹³^,⁷⁵⁷	Poultry, pheasants, cranes/coccidia; Sarcocystis; lower dose is prophylactic; higher dose is therapeutic
	125 mg/kg feed⁶⁴⁷	Turkeys/31/33 Eimeria isolates resistant
Cambendazole (Equiben, MSD, AgVet)	60-100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-7 days⁵⁰⁶	Most species
	75 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days⁴³^,³²⁵	Pigeons
Carbaryl 5% (Sevin Dust, Bayer)	Topical; light dusting of plumage or nest box litter⁴³	Most species/ants, ectoparasites; remove treated litter after 24 hr
	1-2 tsp to nesting material⁴³	Most species/ectoparasite control
Carnidazole (Spartrix, Wildlife Pharma-ceuticals)	—	Treatment for Trichomonas, Hexamita, Histomonas⁴³
Carnidazole (Spartrix, Wildlife Pharma-ceuticals)	5 mg/bird PO⁶⁹³	Doves (adults), pigeons (squabs)
	10 mg/bird PO⁷⁸⁵	Pink pigeons (adults)/Trichomonas; squabs ≤18 days old administer 5 mg
	12.5-25 mg/kg PO once⁴³^,¹²⁶	Pigeons/Trichomonas, use lower dose with juvenile birds; combine with dimetridazole to treat flock
	20 mg/kg PO once³²⁴	Pigeons
	20 mg/kg q24h PO × 2 days³⁴¹^,³⁹⁷	Raptors
	20-25 mg/kg PO once⁴³	Raptors/single dose not always effective in falcons, bustards with advanced infections
	20-30 mg/kg PO q24h × 1-2 days⁴³^,¹²⁶	Most species, including pigeons, psittacines
	20-30 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days²⁸	House finches/reliably cleared Trichomonas gallinae if caught prior to clinical signs
	30 mg/kg PO once²⁶¹	Raptors/Trichomonas
	30 mg/kg PO q12h × 3 days³⁹²	Raptors
	30 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days⁶⁶⁰	Raptors/Trichomonas
	30-50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days³⁸⁷^,⁶⁷²	Cockatiels/Giardia
	33 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 and 28 days⁴⁹	Society finches, Gouldian finches/flagellates; 0.5 mg/adult (based on 15 g); 0.25 mg/nestling (based on 7.5 g)
	50 mg/kg PO once³⁶³	Raptors
	120 mg/kg PO as single dose or divided over 2-5 days⁸¹⁷	American kestrels, screech owls/Trichomonas infections resistant to treatment with lower doses
Chloroquine phosphate	—	Generally used with primaquine for Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon; overdose can result in death⁴³
	5 mg/kg PO q24h or in feed⁶⁷²^,⁷⁵⁷	Game birds, penguins/in penguins, precede treatment with primaquine by 6 hr
	10 mg/kg PO q7d⁶⁶¹	Most species/preventative treatment for Plasmodium once bird is stable; use with primaquine (1 mg/kg q7d)
	10 mg/kg PO, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 18, and 24 hr⁴³	Penguins
	10 mg/kg PO, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 24, and 48 hr¹¹³	Raptors/use with 0.3 mg/kg primaquine (at 24 hr following the initial chloroquine dose) q24h × 7 days
	20 mg/kg PO or IV, then 10 mg/kg at 6, 18, and 24 hr; repeat q7d × 3-5 treatments⁶⁷¹	Raptors/Plasmodium; IV is recommended for initial dose in acute cases; use with 1 mg/kg primaquine q24h × 2 days
	25 mg/kg PO, then 15 mg/kg PO at 12, 24, and 48 hr⁶⁶⁵^,⁷⁴⁷	Most species, including raptors/use with 0.75-1.3 mg/kg primaquine at 0 hr
	60 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days⁵⁵¹	Raptors/Haemoproteus; use in conjunction with mefloquine and primaquine
	2000 mg/L drinking water q24h × 14 days¹²⁶^,⁷⁵⁷	Passerines, game birds/juice covers bitter taste of drug⁷⁵⁷
Clazuril (Appertex, Janssen)	—	Benzene-acetonitrile anticoccidial
Clazuril (Appertex, Janssen)	2.5 mg/bird PO once; can repeat monthly⁸³⁰	Pigeons/oocyst shedding commences 20 days post-treatment
	3 mg/kg PO once, or × 5 days²⁸⁸	Chickens/PK; drug detected in eggs after multiple dosing
	5 mg/kg PO once¹²⁶	Pigeons
	5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days³⁴¹	Raptors
	5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days⁵⁰⁶	Poultry, pigeons
	5-10 mg/kg PO q72h × 3 treatments⁴³^,¹⁴⁹	Waterfowl, raptors
	6.25 mg/kg PO once⁴³	Pigeons
	7 mg/kg PO × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days⁴³^,⁶⁴	Psittacines
	30 mg/kg PO once¹²⁶	Raptors
	1.1 or 5.5 mg/kg feed¹¹⁵	Sandhill cranes/ineffective in preventing experimentally induced disseminated visceral coccidiosis
Clopidol (25%) (Coyden-25, Alpharma)	125 mg/kg feed⁶⁴⁷	Turkeys/16/33 Eimeria isolates showed partial to complete resistance
	125-250 mg/kg feed⁷⁵⁷	Game birds/coccidiosis, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium
Clorsulon (Curatrem, Merial)	—	Benzenesulfonamide anthelmintic and flukicide
	20 mg/kg PO q14d × 3 treatments⁴³^,¹⁴¹^,⁶⁷¹	Psitacines, waterfowl, raptors/trematodes, cestodes
	20 mg/kg PO 3×/wk × 14 days⁶³	Waterfowl, raptors/trematodes, cestodes
Crotamiton (Eurax, Westwood-Squibb)	Topical to affected areas⁴³	Most species/mites (i.e., Knemidokoptes); use in combination with ivermectin
Cypermethrin (5%) (Max Con, Y-Tex)	60-120 mg/chicken topically over dorsal neck²¹	Chickens/effective against Triatoma infestans
	Spray or dip with 1:100 dilution⁴³	Pigeons, ostriches/lice, mites
Decoquinate (Deccox, Alpharma)	20-40 mg/kg feed³⁰⁴^,⁷⁸⁷	Chickens/Eimeria; very effective in isolates studied
Deltamethrin (Spot On, Schering-Plough)	50 mg/L topical spray⁵¹¹	Ostriches/lice; spray until runoff
Dichlorophene (Tapeworm tablets, Happy Jack)	100 mg PO q10d × 2 treatments, repeat in 10 days prn⁴¹⁷	Pigeons/cestodes; administer after a 12-hr fast
Diclazuril (Clinicox 0.5%, Huvepharma AD; DiClosol 1%, Pharmaswede)	—	Benzene-acetonitrile anticoccidial; some Eimeria resistance in poultry documented recently;⁴^,⁶⁴⁷ rotation suggested for long-term prevention
	10 mg/kg PO q12h on days 0,1,2,4,6,8,10⁵¹⁴	Hawaiian crows/Toxoplasma
	5 mg/L drinking water × 6 days³³	Chickens/reduced oocyst viability and virulence
	5-10 mg/L drinking water × 2 days²¹³	Chickens/effective in preventing disease and reducing total oocysts, lesions and mortality in infected birds with mixed Eimeria infections
	0.5-1 mg/kg feed¹²³^,²¹³	Chickens, turkeys/coccidia
	1 mg/kg feed⁶⁴⁷	Turkeys/21/33 Eimeria isolates partially or completely resistant
Dimetridazole (Emtryl 40% powder, Rhone Merieux)	—	Trichomonas, Giardia, Hexamita, Spironucleus, Histomonas; low therapeutic index; hepatotoxic to lories, some passerines (e.g., robins) and fledgling birds;⁴³ not recommended for finches; highly toxic to geese, ducks, and pigeons;⁷⁵⁷ not available in many countries (United States, European Union) because of human health risks; Canada has banned use in food-producing animals;⁵⁶¹ do not give during breeding season⁴³
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 10 days⁵⁴³	Falcons/Enterocytozoon bieneusi
	50 mg/kg PO or in drinking water q24h × 6 days¹²⁶	Pigeons
	100 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries, finches
	200-400 mg/L drinking water × 5 days¹³^,⁷⁰	Psittacines, game birds
	250 mg/L drinking water × 4-6 days⁴⁹	Gouldian finches/Cochlostoma, Trichomonas
	265 mg/L drinking water¹⁰²	Pigeons
	300 mg/L drinking water × 10 days⁴³	Bustards/prevention of Trichomonas
	400 mg/L drinking water × 3 days³⁶⁷	Pigeons/PD; bioavailability reduced with feed
	666 mg/L drinking water × 7-12 days⁴³	Pigeons/Trichomonas, Giardia, Hexamita
	800 mg/L drinking water⁷⁵⁷	Poultry, game birds
	900 mg/L drinking water × 5 days, followed by 700 mg/L × 10 days⁴³	Bustards/treatment of choice for Trichomonas
	¼-½ tsp/gal drinking water × 3-5 days³²³	Pigeons/CNS symptoms if overdosed; because of variable water consumption, use lower dose in hot weather and higher dose in cool weather
	½ tsp/gal drinking water × 5 days⁶⁷¹	Lories, mynahs
	1 tsp/gal drinking water × 5 days⁵⁰⁶^,⁵¹⁸	Most species
	185-187.5 mg/kg feed¹⁰²^,⁷⁵⁷	Poultry, game birds
	200-400 mg/kg feed³⁶²	Chickens/highly effective against Histomonas
	200-500 mg/kg feed¹⁰²	Ostriches (≤3 mo of age)/Trichomonas
	250 mg/kg feed⁴³	Bustards/Trichomonas
Dinitolmide (Zoamix, Alpharma)	40-187 mg/kg feed⁵¹¹	Chickens, turkeys/coccidia
Doramectin (Dectomax, Pfizer)	1 mg/kg SC, IM,⁴³ repeat in 2 weeks¹²⁶	Raptors, bustards/used to treat GI nematodes, lungworms, eyeworms, mites⁴³
Febantel (Vercom, Rintal, Bayer)	5 mg/kg PO⁵¹¹	Ostriches
Febantel (Vercom, Rintal, Bayer)	20 mg/kg PO⁵¹¹	Ostriches
	30 mg/kg PO once⁴¹	Pigeons/PD; ascarids; repeated doses required to eliminate Capillaria obsignata
	37.5 mg/kg PO once⁴³	Pigeons
Fenbendazole (Panacur, Intervet)	—	Most species/anthelmintic effective against cestodes, nematodes, trematodes, Giardia, acanthocephalans; toxicity documented in pigeons and doves;³⁶¹^,⁵⁹⁴^,⁶⁷⁶ may be toxic for other species, including raptors,⁶⁹² vultures,⁷⁵^,³⁶³ lories,⁵⁹⁴ storks;⁷⁵^,⁸³⁹ can cause feather abnormalities if administered during molting;⁴³ ineffective against finch ventricular worms⁴³
	1.5-3.9 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days⁷⁹³	Chickens/PK, PD; Capillaria
	8 mg/bird PO once⁴³^,¹²⁶	Pigeons/(>8 wk old)
	10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days¹²⁶^,³²⁴	Pigeons/nematodes
	10-50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days³⁶³^,³⁹⁷	Raptors/nematodes, trematodes
	12 mg/kg PO¹⁰²	Partridges, pheasants/Syngamus, Heterakis, Ascaridia
	15 mg/kg PO³⁸⁸	Ostriches/“wire worms”, cestodes
	15 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days⁴³	Psittacines
	15-25 mg/kg PO × 4-5 days⁷³⁷	Tinamous
	15-45 mg/kg PO¹⁰²	Ostriches
	20 mg/kg PO once⁴³^,⁸³⁴	Waterfowl, pheasants/cestodes, nematodes, acanthocephalans; reduced Heterakis and Eimeria in pheasants
	20 mg/kg PO q24h × 10-14 days¹⁴⁹	Raptors/filarids
	20-25 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days¹⁴⁹^,²⁶¹^,⁶⁵⁷	Raptors/Capillaria
	20-50 mg/kg PO q24h⁴³^,⁸¹²	Psittacines, pigeons/ascarids in psittacines, treat once and repeat in 10 days; trematodes and microfilaria, treat for 3 days; Capillaria, treat for 5 days
	20-50 mg/kg q24h × 3 days, repeat in 21 days³⁶³	Raptors
	20-100 mg/kg PO once⁵⁰⁶	Most species
	25 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days¹⁴¹^,⁷⁴⁶	Most species, including owls/ascarids
	25 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days,¹²⁶ repeat in 10-14 days³⁶³	Raptors/Capillaria, spirurids
	30 mg/kg PO once⁴³	Bustards
	33 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days¹⁴⁷	Psittacines, passerines, raptors/microfilaria, trematodes
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days¹⁴¹^,⁵⁷¹^,⁶⁹³	Most species, including pigeons, Bali mynahs/nematodes, trematodes, Giardia
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days¹⁴¹	Most species/Capillaria
	50 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days⁶⁹²	Cockatoos/filarid adulticide treatment; use with ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg once)
	100 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 10-14 days³⁶³	Raptors/Capillaria, spirurids
	100 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days¹¹¹	Cranes/Capillaria
	50 mg/L drinking water × 5 days⁵⁰⁶	Finches
	125 mg/L drinking water × 5 days⁵⁰⁶	Most species/nematodes
	53 mg/kg in feed × 5-7 days⁷⁵⁷	Game birds/nematodes, trematodes
	80 mg/kg feed⁷⁹³	Chickens/PK, PD; Capillaria
Fipronil (Frontline, Merial)	7.5 mg/kg; spray on skin once, repeat in 30 days prn⁴³^,¹²⁶^,²⁶¹	Raptors, pigeons, passerines/ectoparasites; apply via pad to base of neck, tail base, and under each wing; avoid plumage during application; alcohol may create dry, brittle feathers; do not soak bird; do not exceed 7.5 mg/kg
Flubendazole (Flutelmium 7.5%, Janssen-Cilag)	30-60 mg/kg feed × 7 days⁷³⁷	Tinamous
Flubendazole (Flutelmium 7.5%, Janssen-Cilag)	60 mg/kg feed × 7-14 days¹⁰²^,¹⁴⁶	Partridges, pheasants
Halofuginone (Collgard Biopharmaceuticals)	—	Not available in the United States
Halofuginone (Collgard Biopharmaceuticals)	1.3-2.72 mg/kg feed¹¹⁹	Turkeys/coccidia; not approved for birds intended for food
	2.7 mg/kg feed¹¹⁹	Chickens/coccidia, Plasmodium
Hydroxychloroquine sulfate (Plaquenil, Sanofi Winthrop)	—	Antimalarial
Hydroxychloroquine sulfate (Plaquenil, Sanofi Winthrop)	830 mg/L drinking water × 6 wk³⁸⁷	Pigeons/Plasmodium
Hygromycin B (Hygromix 8, Elanco)	—	Aminoglycoside antibiotic used as anthelmintic feed additive
	9-13 mg/kg feed⁷⁵⁷	Game birds/ascarids, cecal worms; some efficacy against Capillaria
	18-26 mg/kg feed × 2 mo⁷⁵⁷	Game birds/cecal worms
Imidocarb dipropionate (Imizol, Intervet/Schering-Plough)	—	Antiprotozoal effective against Babesia
Imidocarb dipropionate (Imizol, Intervet/Schering-Plough)	5-7 mg/kg IM once, repeat in 7 days⁷⁰⁹^,⁸⁵⁰	Raptors/Babesia; some cases require a total of 3 treatments
Ipronidazole (Ipropran, Roche)	—	Giardia, Trichomonas, Histomonas; not available in the United States; 61 g/2.65 oz
	130 mg/L drinking water × 7 days³⁷^,⁵⁰⁶	Most species, including pigeons
	250 mg/L drinking water × 3-7 days⁵¹⁸^,⁶⁹³	Psittacines, pigeons
Ivermectin (Ivomec, Merial)	—	All species/most nematodes, acanthocephalans, leeches, most ectoparasites (including Knemidokoptes, Dermanyssus); can dilute with water or saline for immediate use; dilute with propylene glycol for extended use; parenteral ivermectin may be toxic to finches and budgerigars;¹⁴⁷ suspected toxicity reported in a Nanday conure at 0.2 mg/kg⁶⁰⁵
	0.2 mg/kg PO, SC, IM once, can repeat in 10-14 days⁴³^,⁶³^,¹¹¹^,¹²⁶^,³²³^,³²⁴^,³⁵⁵^,³⁸⁴^,⁵⁸¹^,⁶⁹²^,⁷⁵⁷	Most species, including psittacines, passerines, pigeons, raptors, Guinea fowl, waterfowl, ratites, cranes/use in combination with fenbendazole at 50 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days for microfilaria in cockatoos⁶⁹²
	0.2 mg/kg SC, topical on skin; can repeat 1-2 weeks for 3-4 applications¹²⁶^,¹⁷³^,²⁰³	Canaries/quill mites, Knemidokoptes; dilute to 0.02% solution with propylene glycol; can apply directly to lesions on cere, legs
	0.4 mg/kg SC once⁴⁰⁹	Passerines (towhees)/Capillaria
	0.4 mg/kg SC once⁵⁰⁶	Raptors
	0.5-1 mg/kg PO, IM once³²³	Pigeons
	1 mg/kg SC, repeat in 7 days⁷⁰⁵	Falcons/Serratospiculum
	2 mg/kg IM once⁷⁹¹	Falcons/Capillaria; no adverse effects observed at this dose
	0.8-1 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	1 drop (0.05 mL) to skin q7d × 3 treatments⁴³	Pigeons, passerines/Knemidokoptes, Dermanyssus
Lasalocid (Avatec, Alpharma)	67-125 mg/kg feed continuously¹⁰²^,⁷⁵⁷^,⁷⁸⁷	Game birds, chickens/coccidia
Levamisole (Tramisol, Schering-Plough)	—	Many species/nematodes; immunostimulant; low therapeutic index (toxic reactions, deaths reported); do not use in debilitated birds;⁴³^,⁵⁰⁶ IM administration may cause severe toxicity; limb paralysis, vomiting, dyspnea reported in a parakeet; do not use in white-faced ibis⁶⁷² or in lories; withhold food before treatment to prevent regurgitation⁵⁰⁶
	2-5 mg/kg SC, IM, repeat in 10-14 days × 3 treatments⁴³	Psittacines/immunostimulant
	7.5 mg/kg PO, SC¹⁰²	Ostriches
	7.5 mg/kg IM once; can repeat in 7 days⁴³	Pigeons
	10-20 mg/kg PO, SC q24h × 2 days¹⁴⁹^,³⁶³	Raptors
	10-20 mg/kg SC once⁴³^,⁵⁰⁶	Most species
	15-20 mg/bird PO once, repeat in 10 days¹²⁶	Pigeons
	20 mg/kg PO once⁴³^,⁵⁰⁶	Psittacines, pigeons, raptors
	20-25 mg/kg SC⁷⁵⁷	Game birds
	20-50 mg/kg PO, SC once⁴³	Waterfowl
	30 mg/kg PO q10d⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	40 mg/kg PO once⁴³^,²¹⁶^,³²⁴^,⁵⁰⁶	Psittacines, pigeons, chickens, raptors/Capillaria; significantly higher bioavailability, volume of distribution and total body clearance in laying hens²¹⁶
	100-200 mg/L drinking water × 3 days¹²⁶^,¹⁴⁷	Psittacines, passerines, raptors
	264-396 mg/L drinking water × 1-3 days³²⁴^,⁵⁰⁶	Most species, including pigeons
	265-525 mg/L drinking water × 1 day, repeat in 7-14 days⁷⁵⁷^,⁸⁴⁹	Game birds, poultry
	375 mg/L drinking water as sole water source for 24 hr, repeat in 7 days⁴³	Pigeons
Maduramicin ammonium (Cygro, Alpharma)	5-6 mg/kg feed⁵¹¹^,⁷⁸⁷	Chickens, turkeys/coccidia; not available in the United States
Malathion (Prozap Malathion 57EC, Loveland)	Dilute to 0.93%; paint or spray perches and premises⁴³	Raptors/organophosphate; premise treatment; Dermanyssus
Mebendazole (Telmin Suspension, Telmintic Powder, Schering-Plough)	5-6 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days, repeat in 21 days³⁸⁷	Pigeons
	5-7 mg/kg PO⁸¹⁰	Ostriches
	5-15 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days⁴³^,⁵³⁴	Waterfowl/nematodes
	10 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days⁵⁰⁶	Canaries/avoid use during breeding season
	20 mg/kg PO q24h × 10-14 days⁴³^,¹⁴⁹	Raptors/filarids
	25 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days¹⁵⁹^,⁶⁷²	Psittacines, ramphastids (toucans)/nematodes; may not be effective for proventricular and ventricular parasites
	25 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days, repeat q30d³⁶³	Raptors/intestinal nematodiasis
	50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days³⁶³	Raptors/intestinal nematodiasis
	10-21 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days³⁸⁷	Pigeons
	1.2 mg/kg feed × 14 days⁶³	Waterfowl/nematodes
Mefloquine HCl (Lariam, Hoffman-LaRoche)	—	Antimalarial; active against erythrocytic and tissue schizonts of some Plasmodium⁶⁶⁵^,⁷⁹²
	30 mg/kg PO q12h × 1 day, then q24h × 1-2 days³⁹⁹^,⁷⁹²^,⁸⁵⁰	Raptors
	30 mg/kg PO q12h × 1 day, then q24h × 2 days, then q7d × 6 mo³⁹⁹	Raptors/long term administration
	30 mg/kg PO once weekly⁶⁶⁰	Raptors/Plasmodium routine prevention during insect season
	50 mg/kg q24h⁵⁵¹	Raptors/Haemoproteus; used in conjunction with chloroquine at doses up to 60 mg/kg
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days¹²⁶	Raptors/Plasmodium
Melarsomine dihydrochloride (Immiticide, Merial)	—	Organic arsenical
Melarsomine dihydrochloride (Immiticide, Merial)	0.25 mg/kg IM q24h × 4 days¹²⁶	Raptors/Leucocytozoon
Melarsomine dihydrochloride (M)/ivermectin (I) (Merial)	(M) 0.25 mg/kg IM q 24h × 2 days followed 10 days later with (I) 1 mg/kg IM⁴³^,⁷⁸⁹	Falcons/Serratospiculum; reduced clinical signs and eliminated shedding of embryonated eggs⁷⁸⁹
Metronidazole	—	Most species/antiprotozoal, including alimentary tract protozoa (especially flagellates such as Giardia, Histomonas, Spironucleus, Trichomonas)
	10-20 mg/kg IM q12-24h × 2 days³⁵⁹^,⁵⁰⁶	Pigeons, psittacines
	10-30 mg/kg PO, IM q12h × 10 days⁴³^,⁸¹²	Psittacines
	20-25 mg/kg PO q12h⁸¹⁰	Ratites
	25 mg/kg PO q12h × 2-10 days⁴⁰²	Psittacine neonates
	25 mg/kg PO q12h × 10 days¹¹⁹	Turkeys/Trichomonas
	25-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h × 5-10 days³⁵⁹	Companion birds/treatment, control, or prevention of Giardia, Trichomonas, and Hexamita
	25-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h³²⁴	Pigeons/use lower dose with twice daily dosing
	30 mg/kg PO via gavage once²³⁰	Finches/Cochlosoma
	30 mg/kg PO q12h¹⁶⁷	Poultry/PK, PD
	30 mg/kg PO q12h × 5-10 days⁴⁹^,⁵⁴⁸^,⁶⁵⁴	Raptors, gouldian finches, psittacines/Trichomonas
	30-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3-5 days⁶⁶⁰	Raptors/Trichomonas
	40 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁴⁵	Rheas
	40 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days⁶⁴⁴	Budgerigars/Trichomonas
	40-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-7 days¹²⁶	Pigeons
	50 mg/kg PO¹¹⁹	Waterfowl/flagellates
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-7 days⁴³^,¹⁴⁹^,²⁶¹^,³⁶³	Raptors/Trichomonas, Giardia
	50 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days¹²⁶^,⁶⁹³	Pigeons, passerines
	100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days⁷⁰⁷	Falcons/Trichomonas
	100-150 mg PO total dose divided over 5 days⁴³	Pigeons
	110 mg/kg PO q12h³²¹	Poultry/Histomonas
	40 mg/L drinking water²³⁰	Finches/Cochlosoma
	100 mg/L drinking water¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	200 mg/L drinking water × 7 days¹²⁶	Passerines
	370 mg/L drinking water⁷⁷³	Passerines/protozoal sinusitis
	400 mg/L drinking water × 5-15 days⁷⁵⁷^,⁷⁷³	Game birds, passerines/protozoal sinusitis
	1057 mg/L drinking water³²⁴	Pigeons
	1250 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days⁵³⁴	Ratites
	100 mg/kg soft feed¹⁹⁸	Canaries
	200-400 mg/kg feed³⁶²	Chickens/highly effective against Histomonas but reduced weight gains at higher dosage
Milbemycin oxime (Interceptor, Novartis)	2 mg/kg PO, repeat in 28 days³⁴⁰	Galliformes/nematodes
Monensin (Coban 45, Elanco)	—	Ionophore antibiotic anticoccidial feed additive
	53-94 mg/kg feed × 10 wk¹²³^,⁷⁵⁷	Turkeys
	73 mg/kg feed × 10 wk¹¹⁹	Quail
	94 mg/kg feed¹¹⁴^,⁷⁵⁷	Quail, cranes/coccidia (including disseminated visceral coccidiosis)
	94-108 mg/kg feed × 8 wk⁷⁵⁷	Chickens
	99 mg/kg feed¹¹⁵	Sandhill cranes/prevented experimentally induced disseminated visceral coccidiosis
	99.2 mg/kg feed⁶⁴⁷	Turkeys/23/33 Eimeria isolates resistant
Moxidectin (ProHeart, Fort Dodge)	—	Treatment of Serratospiculum, Capillaria, acanthocephalans, Paraspiralatus sakeri, and Physaloptera alata in falcons⁴³
	0.2 mg/kg PO¹²⁶^,⁷⁰⁵	Raptors/nematodes
	0.2 mg/kg IM once¹⁵⁹	Ramphastids (toucans)/repeat if necessary
	0.5 mg/kg PO⁴³	Raptors
	0.5-1 mg/kg PO¹²⁶	Raptors/Capillaria
	1 mg/bird topically once, or can repeat q10d × 2 treatments	Budgerigars/Knemidokoptes; no adverse effects seen at this dose in this species^a
Narasin (Monteban 45, Elanco)	20-80 mg/kg feed⁷⁸⁷	Chickens/prophylatic coccidiostat; toxic to turkeys
Nicarbazin (Nicarb 25%, Merck AgVet)	20-125 mg/kg feed⁷⁸⁷	Chickens/prophylactic coccidiostat
Niclosamide (Yomesan, Bayer)	—	Cestodes, trematodes; rarely used since praziquantel is more efficacious; may be toxic for geese and some Anseriformes; not available in the United States
	50-100 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days⁴¹³	Ostriches
	220 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days³²⁹	Most species
	250 mg/kg PO q14d prn¹¹⁰	Cranes
	500 mg/kg PO q7d × 4 wk³²⁹	Finches
Oxfendazole (Benzelmin, Syntex)	5 mg/kg PO once¹⁴⁶	Ostriches/nematodes
Oxfendazole (Benzelmin, Syntex)	10-40 mg/kg PO once⁵⁰⁶^,⁷⁶⁷	Most species, including finches/nematodes
	15-25 mg/kg PO once¹⁵⁹	Ramphastids (toucans)/repeat in 15 days prn
	20 mg/kg PO once³⁴¹	Raptors
Paromomycin (Humatin, Caraco-Pharma)	—	Highest efficacy of all drugs tested thus far against Cryptosporidium; oocyst output decreased by 67-82% in chickens;⁷⁵⁶ may result in secondary bacterial or mycotic infections; use with caution if ulcerative bowel lesions are suspected because renal toxicity may occur;³⁵⁹ ineffective against Histomonas³⁶²
	100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days¹³⁶^,²⁶¹	Most species, including macaw chicks, falcons/mix a 250 mg capsule with 10 ml water to facilitate dosing; poorly absorbed
	1000 mg/kg soft food or hulled millet⁴⁹	Gouldian finches/Cryptosporidium; may predispose to fungal infections
Permethrin (Adams, Pfizer)	Dust plumage lightly⁴³	Pigeons/lice, fleas
Permethrin/piperonyl butoxide/methoprene (Avian Insect Liquidator, Vetafarm)	Apply to plumage; spray cages, aviaries, bird rooms, surroundings⁴³	Most species/lice, mites, flies, mosquitoes, moths; not available in the United States
Phenylarsonic acid (Merck European Laboratories)	22-45 mg/kg¹¹⁹	Chickens, turkeys/Histomonas prevention; not recommended or approved for game birds; not available in the United States
Piperazine (Wazine, Fleming Laboratories)	—	Most species/ascarids, oxyurids; less efficacious than fenbendazole; seldom used in companion birds
	35 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days³²⁴	Pigeons/ascarids
	45-200 mg/kg PO once⁶⁷¹	Waterfowl/Tetrameres, Capillaria
	50-100 mg/kg PO once⁵³⁴^,⁷⁵⁷	Emus, ostriches, chickens
	100 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days³⁹⁷^,⁵⁰⁶	Raptors
	100-400 mg/bird PO⁷⁵⁷	Turkeys
	100-500 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 10-14 days⁷⁵⁷	Game birds
	250 mg/kg PO once⁵⁰⁶	Psittacines, pigeons
	79 mg/L drinking water × 2 days³²⁴	Pigeons/ascarids
	1000 mg/L drinking water × 3 days⁶³^,⁵⁰⁶	Raptors, pigeons
	1000 mg/L drinking water; repeat in 10-14 days⁴³	Gallinaceous birds/not effective in psittacines, finches
	1000-2000 mg/L drinking water × 1-2 days¹⁰²^,¹²⁶^,⁷⁵⁷	Game birds, pigeons
	1600-2600 mg/L drinking water¹¹⁹	Waterfowl/Tetrameres, Capillaria
	3700 mg/L drinking water × 12 hr, repeat in 14-21 days¹²⁶	Passerines
Piperonyl butoxide/pyrethrin (Ridmite Powder, Johnson)	Dust plumage, repeat in 10 days⁴³	Psittacines
Piperonyl butoxide/pyrethrin (Ridmite Powder, Johnson)	Dust plumage, repeat in 21 days⁴³	Raptors
Ponazuril (Marquis 5% paste; Bayer)	—	Triazine coccidiocidal drug; metabolite of toltrazuril
	20 mg/kg q24h × 7 days⁸²⁹	Falcons/respiratory Cryptosporidium baileyi
Praziquantel (Droncit, Bayer)	—	Most species/cestodes, trematodes; toxic in finches and associated with depression, death in some species⁴³^,⁶⁷²
	1 mg/kg PO⁴³	Bustards/well tolerated
	5-10 mg/kg PO, repeat after 2-4 wk⁴³^,¹⁴⁷^,¹⁴⁹	Psittacines, passerines, raptors
	5-10 mg/kg PO, SC q24h × 14 days⁴³^,⁶³^,¹¹⁹^,³⁶³	Raptors, waterfowl/trematodes
	6 mg/kg PO, IM, repeat in 10-14 days¹¹¹	Cranes
	7.5 mg/kg PO⁷⁰^,⁵³⁴	Ostriches
	7.5 mg/kg SC, IM repeat in 2-4 wk¹²⁶^,¹⁴⁷	Most species, except finches
	8.5 mg/kg IM¹⁶	Chickens
	9 mg/kg IM, repeat in 10 days⁴³^,⁶⁴	Psittacines/cestodes
	10 mg/kg PO, IM, SC once; repeat in 7 days²⁶¹	Raptors/cestodes, trematodes
	10 mg/kg SC, IM q24h × 3 days, then PO × 11 days³⁶³^,⁸¹²	Psittacines, raptors/trematodes
	10 mg/kg PO¹⁶	Chickens
	10 mg/kg IM q24h × 3 days, then PO q24h × 11 days²⁸⁶	Toucans/trematodes
	10 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q24h × 14 days⁴³^,¹⁵⁹	Waterfowl, toucans/trematodes; in toucans, follow with 6 mg/kg PO q24h × 14 days⁶⁷²
	10-20 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days⁴³^,⁷⁰^,¹²⁶^,³²⁴	Most species including pigeons, waterfowl
	10-20 mg/kg SC, IM, repeat in 10 days⁶³	Waterfowl/cestodes
	11 mg/kg SC once¹⁶	Chickens
	25 mg/kg PO, IM, repeat in 10-14 days⁵⁷⁰	Bali mynahs/cestodes
	30-50 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, repeat in 14 days³⁶³^,³⁹⁷	Raptors/cestodes
	12 mg crushed and baked into 9” × 9” × 2” cake⁵⁰⁶	Finches/withhold regular feed
Primaquine	—	Pigeons, raptors, game birds, penguins/hematozoa (i.e., Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon); use in conjunction with chloroquine; dosage based on amount of active base rather than total tablet weight
	0.03 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days¹³⁴^,⁶⁷¹^,⁷⁵⁷	Game birds, penguins
	0.3 mg/kg PO (at 24 hr following the initial chloroquine dose) q24h × 7 days¹¹³	Raptors/use with chloroquine (10 mg/kg at 0 hr, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 24, and 48 hr)
	0.3 mg/kg PO q24h × 10 days²⁶⁶	Penguins/Plasmodium; use with chloroquine (10 mg/kg at 0 hr, then 5 mg/kg at 6, 18, and 24 hr)
	0.75 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days⁷⁹⁰	Falcons/Haemoproteus tinnunculi
	0.75-1 mg/kg PO once⁶⁶¹^,⁷⁴⁷	Most species, including raptors/Plasmodium; use with chloroquine (25 mg/kg at 0 hr, then 15 mg/kg at 12, 24, and 48 hr); palliative therapy
	1 mg/kg PO q7d⁶⁶¹	Most species/use with chloroquine (10 mg/kg q7d) as a preventative regimen for birds recovering from Plasmodium infection
	1 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days, repeat q7d × 3-5 treatments to prevent relapse⁶⁶¹	Raptors/Plasmodium; use with chloroquine (20 mg/kg IV initially, followed by 10 mg/kg PO at 6, 18, and 24 hr)
	1 mg/kg PO q24h × 45 days⁸⁴³	Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis; use in combination with amprolium, enrofloxacin and pyrimethamine
	1.25 mg/kg PO q24h²⁶⁶	Penguins/prophylactic therapy against Plasmodium
Pyrantel pamoate	—	Intestinal nematodes
	4.5 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days⁴³^,⁸⁵³	Psittacines, including cockatoo chicks⁸⁵³
	5-7 mg/kg PO⁸¹⁰	Ostriches
	7 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days¹⁴¹	Most species
	7-20 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days³⁶³	Raptors
	20 mg/kg PO once⁴³^,¹⁴⁹	Raptors
	20-25 mg/kg PO³²⁴	Pigeons
	70 mg/kg PO once¹⁵⁹	Ramphastids (toucans)/repeat if necessary
	148 mg/L drinking water⁶⁹²	Psittacines, pigeons/medication floats
Pyrethrins (0.15%) (Adams, Pfizer)	Dust plumage lightly to moderately prn⁶³^,⁶⁹²	Most species, including psittacines, pigeons/ectoparasites
Pyrimethamine (Fansidar, Roche)	—	Toxoplasma, Atoxoplasma, Sarcocystis; may be effective for Leucocytozoon; supplement with folic or folinic acid
	0.25-0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days⁴³^,¹⁴⁹	Raptors, waterfowl/Sarcocystis, Toxoplasma
	0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 14-28 days¹²⁶^,¹⁴¹	Most species/use for 28 days for Leucocytozoon in raptors¹²⁶
	0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days⁶³	Waterfowl/Sarcocystis
	0.5 mg/kg PO q12h × 45 days⁸⁴³	Psittacines (keas)/Sarcocystis; use in combination with amprolium and primaquine
	0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 2-4 days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days³⁵⁹	Companion birds/Sarcocystis; use in combination with trimethoprim-sulfa 5 mg/kg IM q12h or 30-100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days
	0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days⁵⁹²	Eclectus, Amazon parrots/use with trimethoprim-sulfadiazine (30 mg/kg)
	1 mg/kg feed⁷⁵⁷	Game birds
	100 mg/kg feed¹⁴¹	Most species
Quinacrine HCl (Atabrine, Sanofi)	—	Most species/Atoxoplasma, Plasmodium; chloroquine and primaquine are preferred; overdosage may cause hepatoxicity⁵⁰⁶
	5-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days³⁹²^,⁵⁰⁶	Most species/use higher doses for Lankesterella, Plasmodium
	7.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 10 days⁵⁰⁶	Most species/Atoxoplasma
	26-79 mg/L drinking water × 10-21 days³²⁴	Pigeons
Rafoxanide (Flukex, Univet; Ranide, MSD)	10 mg/kg PO⁸⁷⁶	Raptors/trematodes, cestodes; not available in the United States
Resorantel (Terenol-S, Intervet)	130 mg/kg PO⁴¹³^,⁵¹¹	Ostriches/cestodes; administer with or without fenbendazole
Robenidine HCl (Bio-Cox, Alpharma)	4-6 mg/kg PO q24h × 6 days⁵¹¹	Pigeons/prophylaxis for coccidiosis
Robenidine HCl (Bio-Cox, Alpharma)	6-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 6-10 days⁵¹¹	All species
	4 mg/L drinking water × 7 days⁵⁰⁶	Songbirds
	10-20 mg/L drinking water × 7 days⁵⁰⁶^,⁵¹¹	Cockatiels, pigeons
	100 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days⁵⁰⁶^,⁵¹¹	Pigeons
	33 mg/kg feed⁵¹¹^,⁷⁸⁷	Chickens
Ronidazole (Ronivet-S, Vetafarm)	2.5 mg/kg PO × 6 days³²⁴	Pigeons
Ronidazole (Ronivet-S, Vetafarm)	6-10 mg/kg PO q24h × 6-10 days⁵⁰⁶	Most species
	10-20 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days¹²⁶	Pigeons
	12.5 mg/kg PO × 6 days⁴³	Pigeons
	50-400 mg/L drinking water × 5 days¹²⁶	Passerines
	60 mg/L drinking water²³⁰	Finches/Cochlosoma
	100 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days⁷⁰²	Pigeons/flock preventative dose; treatment of choice for Trichomonas³⁰⁸
	100-200 mg/L drinking water × 7 days⁵⁰⁶	Cockatiels, pigeons/higher dosage required for resistant strains in pigeons
	100-600 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days³²⁴	Pigeons
	400 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days⁴³^,¹⁹⁸^,⁵¹¹	Canaries, pigeons/flock treatment; Trichomonas; preventive dose⁴³
	600 mg/L drinking water × 5-7 days⁴³	Pigeons/Trichomonas; flock treatment
	1000 mg/L drinking water q24h¹²⁶	Pigeons/equivalent to 12.5 mg/kg/day
	400 mg/kg soft feed¹⁹⁸^,⁵¹¹	Canaries
Rotenone (Ear Miticide, Vedco)	Topical⁸⁷⁶	Most species/Knemidokoptes
Selamectin (Revolution, Pfizer)	—	No adverse effects, including neurological signs, were seen in healthy zebra finches with doses up to 92 mg/kg⁶⁹
	23 mg/kg topically, repeat in 3-4 weeks⁶⁸	Budgerigars/Knemidokoptes improvement in 13/14 birds at 4 wk, with no neurologic signs identified but monitor for weight loss
Sulfachlorpyrazine (ESB3, Novartis)	—	Coccidiostat; affects the intestinal stages of Atoxoplasma;¹⁹⁸ not available in the United States, but can be obtained through the Bali mynah Species Survival Plan⁵⁷²
	1 g of 30% powder/L drinking water × 5 days, off 3 days, on 5 days, then repeat cycle 4x; administer treatment 3x annually⁵⁷²	Bali mynahs/Atoxoplasma; significantly reduced or totally cleared oocyst shedding for extended time; it is uncertain if the drug is safe to use when parents are feeding chicks; supplement with vitamin B₆
Sulfachlorpyridazine (Vetisulid, Boehringer-Ingelheim)	—	Coccidiostat; used as replacement for sulfachlorpyrazine in the United States
Sulfachlorpyridazine (Vetisulid, Boehringer-Ingelheim)	150-300 mg/L drinking water;¹⁹⁸ 5 days/wk × 2-3 weeks¹⁷³	Passerines, including canaries/may need to treat for months for systemic coccidiosis
	300 mg/L drinking water × 5 days, off 3 days, on 5 days, then repeat cycle 4x; administer treatment 3x annually⁵⁷²	Passerines, including Bali mynahs/Atoxoplasma
	300 mg/L drinking water × 7-10 days³²⁴	Pigeons
	300-1000 mg/L drinking water × 3 days, off 2 days, then repeat course¹²⁶	Pigeons
	400 mg/L drinking water × 30 days⁶⁹²	Cockatiels, budgerigars/mixture is stable for up to 5 days if refrigerated; change daily; mix well
	400-500 mg/L drinking water × 5 days, off 2 days, on 5 days⁵⁰⁶	Most species
Sulfadimethoxine (12.5%) (Albon, Pfizer)	20 mg/kg PO q12h⁹⁶	Most species/treatment and prophylaxis of coccidia
Sulfadimethoxine (12.5%) (Albon, Pfizer)	25 mg/kg PO q12h × 5 days³²⁴	Most species
	25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days³⁹⁷	Raptors
	25-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, then q24h × 3 days³⁶³	Raptors
	25-55 mg/kg PO q 24h × 3-7 days⁶⁵⁸	Raptors/Eimeria, Sarcocystis
	50 mg/kg PO once, then 25 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days³⁶³	Raptors
	50 mg/kg PO q24h × 5 days, off 3 days, on 5 days⁸¹²	Psittacines
	250 mg/kg IM q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days⁹²	Pigeons/PK, PD; close to toxic level
	250 mg/L drinking water × 5 days⁷⁵⁷	Turkeys
	330-400 mg/L drinking water × 1 day then 200 mg/L × 4 days³²⁴	Pigeons/supplement with vitamin B for 5 days
	500 mg/L drinking water × 6 days⁷⁵⁷	Chickens
Sulfadimethoxine/ormetoprim (Rofenaid, Hoffmann-La Roche)	10 mg/kg feed⁷⁵⁷	Game birds/coccidia, Leucocytozoon, Sarcocystis
Sulfadimethoxine/ormetoprim (Rofenaid, Hoffmann-La Roche)	320-525 mg/L drinking water³²¹	Poultry
Sulfadimidine sodium (33.3%) (Neotrizine, Lilly)	40-50 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days or 3 days on, 2 days off¹²⁶	Pigeons
Sulfadimidine sodium (33.3%) (Neotrizine, Lilly)	50-150 mg/kg PO, IM q24h × 5-7 days²⁴²	Raptors/coccidia; lack of efficacy reported in merlins²⁶²
	3330-6660 mg/L drinking water × 3-5 days on, 2 days off repeated twice⁴³	Pigeons/coccidia; may be effective against Toxoplasma
Sulfamethazine (Sulmet, Boehringer-Ingelheim)	—	See sulfonamides; coccidiostat; consider vitamin B supplementation
Sulfamethazine (Sulmet, Boehringer-Ingelheim)	50-65 mg/pigeon PO × 3 days, off 2-3 days, repeat × 2-3 days⁴³⁴	Pigeons
	50-65 mg/pigeon PO × 5 days³²⁴^,⁴³⁴	Pigeons/supplement vitamin B for 5 days³²⁴
	75 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days⁵⁰⁶	Parakeets
	125-185 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days, then 64-94 mg/kg × 4 days³⁸⁸	Chickens
	125 mg/L drinking water × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days⁵⁰⁶	Most species
	400 mg/L drinking water once, then 200-270 mg/L × 4 days³²⁴	Pigeons
Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-50, Solvay)	—	Sulfonamide used for prevention and treatment of coccidiosis
Sulfaquinoxaline (Sulquin 6-50, Solvay)	100 mg/kg PO q24h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days⁵⁰⁶	Lories, pigeons
	250 mg/L drinking water × 6 days, off 2 days, on 6 days⁶⁹²	Turkeys
	400 mg/L (1.4 mL/L) drinking water × 6 days, off 2 days, on 6 days⁶⁹²	Chickens
	500 mg/L (1.8 mL/L) drinking water × 6 days, off 2 days, on 6 days⁶⁹³	Pigeons
	225 mg/kg feed continuously⁷⁵⁷	Turkeys
	450 mg/kg feed continuously⁷⁵⁷	Chickens
Sulfonamides	—	Competitvely inhibit para-aminobenzoic acid, required by schizonts for folic acid synthesis;⁴³⁴ contraindicated with dehydration, liver disease, or bone marrow suppression; gastrointestinal upset, regurgitation are common, especially in macaws; use for longer than 2 wk may require vitamin B (folic acid) supplementation
Thiabendazole	—	Most species/nematodes, acanthocephalans; generally less efficacious than fenbendazole; may be toxic to cranes, ratites, diving ducks⁴³
	40-100 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days⁵⁰⁶	Most species
	50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 14 days⁵³⁴	Ostriches
	100 mg/kg PO once, repeat in 10-14 days⁷⁴⁷	Raptors
	100 mg/kg PO q24h × 7-10 days³⁸⁷	Most species/gapeworms, ascarids
	100-200 mg/kg PO q12h × 10 days¹⁴⁹	Raptors/nematodes; may interfere with egg laying
	100-500 mg/kg PO once⁵⁰⁶	Most species
	250-500 mg/kg PO, repeat in 10-14 days⁴³^,⁸¹²	Most species, including psittacines/ascarids
	425 mg/kg feed × 14 days¹¹³^,⁷⁵⁷	Pheasants, cranes
Tinidazole (Fasigyn, Pfizer)	50 mg/kg PO once⁵⁰⁶	Most species/Giardia, Trichomonas, Entamoeba
	200-400 mg/kg feed³⁶²	Chickens/Histomonas; depressed weight gain on higher dosage
Toltrazuril (Baycox, Bayer)	—	Coccidiocidal;⁴³⁴ efficacious for refractory coccidiosis; has been successful in reducing mortality from Atoxoplasma in canaries and other passerines and may affect systemic stages of the disease;⁵⁷² not very effective against Atoxoplasma when given in water; bitter taste, mixing with soft drink (i.e., cola) increases palatability;⁴³ 2.5% solution is very alkaline and should not be gavaged directly into the crop⁴³⁴
	7 mg/kg PO q24h × 2-3 days³⁵⁸^,³⁹⁷	Budgerigars, raptors
	10 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days⁶⁵⁸	Raptors/preferred treatment for Caryospora
	10 mg/kg PO q48h × 3 treatments⁴³	Raptors/treatment of choice for coccidiosis in falcons
	12.5 mg/kg PO q24h × 14 days⁵⁷⁰	Bali mynahs/Atoxoplasma; dosage is based on a limited number of clinical cases
	15-25 mg/kg PO q24h × 2 days⁴³	Raptors
	20-35 mg/kg PO once⁸³⁰	Pigeons/higher dose prevents shedding up to 4 wk; lower dose is minimum dose required to suppress oocyst shedding
	25 mg/kg PO q7d × 3 treatments¹²⁶^,²⁶¹	Raptors/Caryospora, coccidiosis
	2 mg/L drinking water × 2 consecutive days/wk¹⁴⁷	Psittacines
	5 mg/L drinking water × 2 days, repeat in 14-21 days⁴⁷¹	Lories/10 mg/L administered during second course of treatment
	12.5 mg/L drinking water × 2 days⁴³	Waterfowl
	20 mg/kg in drinking water × 2 days⁴³⁴	Pigeons
	25 mg/L drinking water × 2 days²¹³	Chickens/effective in preventing disease and reducing total oocysts, lesions, and mortality in infected birds with mixed Eimeria infections
	25 mg/L drinking water × 2 days, repeat in 5 days³⁰⁷	Geese
	25 mg/L drinking water × 2 days, repeat in 14-21 days⁴⁷¹	Cockatiels, passerines (including goldfinches, manikins, siskins)/coccidia
	75 mg/L drinking water × 2 days/wk × 4 wk¹⁷³	Passerines
	75 mg/L drinking water × 5 days³²⁵	Pigeons
	125 mg/L drinking water × 5 days⁴³	Pigeons
Trimethoprim/sulfachlorpyridazine (1:5 ratio; Cosumix Plus, Novartis)	—	See sulfonamides
	400 mg/kg feed³⁸⁸^,⁶⁷²	Geese
Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine (Di-Trim, Boehringer-Ingelheim; Duphatrim 24% injection, Solvay)	—	See sulfonamides
	5 mg/kg IM q12h³⁵⁹	Companion birds/Sarcocystis; use in conjunction with pyrimethamine (0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 2 days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days)
	30 mg/kg PO q8-12h⁶⁵^,³⁶³	Most species, including psittacines, raptors/Sarcocystis (treat for at least 6 wk); coccidia
	30-100 mg/kg PO q12h × 7 days³⁵⁹	Companion birds/Sarcocystis; use in conjunction with pyrimethamine (0.5-1 mg/kg PO q12h × 2 days, then 0.25 mg/kg PO q12h × 30 days)
	60 mg/kg PO, SC q12h × 3 days, off 2 days, on 3 days⁴³	Raptors, waterfowl/coccidia
	80 mg/mL drinking water (trimethoprim)/40 mg/mL water (sulfadiazine)⁸⁵²	Canaries/Toxoplasma gondii
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim, Roche; Septra, Burroughs Welcome)	25 mg/kg PO q24h⁶⁷²	Toucans, mynahs/coccidia
	30 mg/kg PO q12-24h¹²⁶	Passerines/antiprotozoal
	320-525 mg/L drinking water³²¹	Poultry/coccidia
	480 mg/L drinking water q24h¹²⁶	Pigeons/antiprotozoal

^a Toparlak M. Personal communication. 1999.

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Aug 21, 2016 | Posted by admin in EXOTIC, WILD, ZOO | Comments Off

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